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THE PRODUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 



IVE 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



ON THE 



PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 



METHOD OP INSTRUCTION RECENTLY ADOPTED 



IN 



GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND, 



IN THE PLACE OF 



THE INDUCTIVE SYSTEM. 



Besffluefc for Schools antr ^(catremfes^ 

y 



OLD BY RICHARDSON, LORD & HOLBROOK, BOSTON ; COLLIN* 
St HANNAY, NEW-YORK) H. & F. J. HUNTINGTON, HARTFORD; 
\ND A. S. BECKWITH, PROVIDENCE. 

1831. 



ffc 



it" 



/^J2/^ 



Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1831, 
By Chas. H. Thomas, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. 






PREFACE. 



The following work was composed, as is indicated by the 
title, on what is styled in Germany and Switzerland the " Pro- 
ductive System of Instruction." It is in these countries that 
the subject of Education has been deemed a matter of para- 
mount importance. The art of teaching, particularly, has there 
been most ably and minutely investigated. To give a brief ac- 
count of the different systems which have prevailed there, may 
not be irrelevant on the present occasion, as they assist in form- 
ing an opinion of the comparative merits of the u Productive 
System," on which this work is principally based. 

" Ix reference to intellectual education, the persons who were instrument- 
al in producing 1 the reformation in schools in the last century in these 
countries, may be divided into four classes — the Humanists, Philanthro- 
pists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools. 

" At the restoration of learning in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 
the classics were brought out from the libraries of the cloisters in which 
they had been buried. As they presented the only examples of exalted 
sentiments and elevated style which the secular literature of the age af- 
forded, they were regarded as the only means of acquiring enlarged views 
and a liberal education, the study of them received the proud title of Hu- 
manity ; and the zealous and meritorious men who employed this means 
for the revival of learning, were subsequently termed Humanists. 

" The rigid Humanists maintained that { the Greek and Latin authors are 
the only source of sound learning, whether in philosophy or rhetoric, in 
poetry or history, in medicine or law, and even in the elements of religion; 
all has come to us from Greece and Rome.' ' The learning of the Greek 
and Latin languages is the only foundation of a thorough education ;' the 
knowledge of the grammar ought to precede all other knowledge ; ' and 
philologists are the only thoroughly learned men.* 

« The Humanists maintained the entire sway of the learned world until 
about the middle of the last century, when the school of the Fhilanthro- 
pists arose. Disgusted with the extravagant manner in which the ancient 
languages were extolled, they were led to examine into the foundations 
of their pretensions. While they yielded the palm to the ancients in all 
that relates to matters of taste and beauty, they maintained that this supe- 
riority arose from the fact, that the ancients derived their views directly 
from the inspection of nature and the observation of man, instead of occu- 
pying themselves, as we do, with the mere pictures of them drawn by oth- 
ers ; — they pointed to the obvious truth that the world is older and vastly 
more experienced than it was two thousand years ago — that in regard to 
all that relates to human knowledge, the present generation are really the 
ancients. They believed that much time was lost by the indiscriminate 
and exclusive use of the classics as the foundation of education, which 
ought to be spent in acquisition of practical knowledge ; and that by this 
tedious and laborious task, without any perceptible advantage to the pu- 
pil, they were often disgusted with every species of intellectual effort. — 
They also pointed out the moral corruption which arises from many of the 
examples and sentiments of the ancients, and especially disapproved that 
discipline of compulsion and violence by which children have been forced 



IT PREFACE. 

to this ungrateful employment. They urged the importance of leading by 
the attraction of knowledge itself, rather than by force. They paid much 
attention to the developement of the bodily constitution and "powers, and 
profess to aim at forming men and not mere scholars. 

" But with the ordinary weakness of human nature in avoiding one ex- 
treme, they ran into the opposite. They forgot the valuable influence of 
these studies, properly regulated, upon the faculties and habits of the 
mind. 

"Notwithstanding their error, the Philanthropists unquestionably exert- 
ed much influence on the improvement of education. The extravagant 
views of the Humanists were considerably modified ; and although many 
still retain the exclusive maxims of their predecessors, many admit, as sta- 
ted in the German * Conversations Lexicon, 5 that ( all should be embraced 
in education which can promote the formation of the man and prepare Mm 
for the eternal destiny of his spirit. 9 The Philanthropists also prepared the 
way for their successors of the School of Pestalozzi. This remarkable man 
adopted many of the opinions of his predecessors of the Philanthropic 
school, especially those which related to the developement of the bodily 
powers, and the methods of discipline, and religious instruction. He per- 
ceived, however, that in assuming practical utility, as the exclusive test of 
the value of particular objects of instruction, they had too much neglected 
the developement of the mind itself In seeking to avoid this error, howev- 
er, he did not entirely escape the other extreme. . He assumed, as a funda- 
mental principle, that a certain developement of mind was necessary for 
every rank and every occupation. The means of this developement he 
supposed himself to have found, so far as the intellectual faculties were 
concerned, in the elements of form and number, which are combined in the 
science of Mathematics, in Language, and in Natural History. The Math- 
ematics appear to have assumed a preponderance in practice, which was 

unfavorable to the regular and harmonious cultivation of other powers. 

T^e senses and the bodily powers he endeavored to develope in accor- 
dance with the views of the Philanthropic school, by the careful examina- 
tion of the various objects of nature and art, which surround the pupil, by 
means of music and by gymnastic exercises, alternated or combined with 
labor. Pestalozzi himself was remarkably the creature of powerful im- 
pulses, which were usually of the most mild and benevolent kind, and pre- 
served a child-like character in this respect, even to old age. It was prob- 
ably this temperament which led him to estimate at alow rate the impor- 
tance of positive religious truth in the education of children, and to main- 
tain that the mere habit of faith and love, if cultivated towards earthly 
parents and benefactors, would of course be transferred to our heavenly 
Father, whenever his character should be exhibited to the mind of the 
child. The fundamental error of this view, was established by the unhap- 
py experience of his own institution ; and his own example afforded the 
most striking evidence that the noblest impulses, not directed by estab- 
lished principles, may lead to imprudence and ruin, and thus defeat their 
own ends.* This principle, combined with the want of tact in reference 
to the affairs of common life, materially impaired his powers of usefulness 
as a practical instructor of youth. The rapid progress of his ideas rarely 
allowed him to execute his own plans, and according to his own system, 

* As an example of this, it may be mentioned that on one of those occasions, (frequently oc- 
curring,) on which he was reduced to extremity for want of the means of supplying his Large 
family, lie borrowed $400 from a friend for this purpose. In going home, he met a peasant 
Wringing his hands in despair, for the loss of his cow. Pestalozzi put the entire big of niuney 
into his haaids, and ran on to escape his thanks. 



PREFACE. V 

too much time was employed in the profound developement of principles 
to admit of much attention to their practical application. But, as one of 
his admirers observed, he seemed destined to educate ideas and not chil- 
dren. He combated with unshrinking" boldness, and untiring 1 persever- 
ance, through a long life, both by his example and by his numerous pub- 
lications, the prejudices and abuses of the age, in reference to education. 
He attacked, with great vigor and no small degree of success, that favor- 
ite maxim of bigotry and tyranny, that obedience and devotion are the 
legitimate offspring of ignorance. He denounced that degrading system 
which considers it enough to enable man to procure a subsistence for him- 
self and his offspring — and in this manner to merely place him on a level 
with the beast of the forest ; and which deems everything lost whose val- 
ue cannot be estimated in money. He urged upon the consciences of pa- 
rents and of rulers, with an energy approaching that of the ancient prophets 
the solemn duties which Divine Providence had imposed upon them, in 
committing' to their charge the present and future destinies of their fellow- 
beings. In this way he produced an impulse, which pervaded the conti- 
nent of Europe, and which, by means of his popular and theoretical works, 
reached the cottages of the poor and palaces of the great. His institution 
at Yverdun was crowded with men of every nation, not merely those who 
were led by the same benevolence which inspired him, but by the agents 
of kings, and noblemen, and public institutions, who came to make them- 
selves acquainted with his principles, in order to become fellow-laborers in 
his plans of benevolence. 

" It is to these companions of his labors, most of whom resided in Germany 
or Switzerland, that we owe the formation of another school which has 
been styled the Productive School; and which now predominates in Ger- 
many and Switzerland. It might, perhaps with equal propriety, be termed 
the Eclectic Sehool ; for it aims at embodying all the valuable principles of 
previous systems without adhering slavishly to the dictates of any master, 
or the views of any party. It rejects alike the idolatrous homage to the 
classics, which was paid by the Humanists — the unreasonable prejudices 
of the Philanthropists against classical and merely literary pursuits — and 
the undue predilection for the mere expansion of mind to the neglect of 
positive knowledge and practical application, which characterized too 
many of the Pestalozzian school. 

(i The leading principle of this system, is that which its name indicates — 
that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient of the ideas of 
others, but as an agent capable of collecting, and originating, and produc- 
ing most of the ideas which are necessary for its education, when presented 
with the objects or the facts from which they may be derived. While on 
the one hand they are careful not to reduce the pupil to a mere machine, 
to be moved by the will of his instructor in an assigned direction, or a 
mass of passive matter t® be formed by him according to his own favorite 
model, they are equally careful to avoid the extreme into which some of 
the preceding school have fallen, of leaving him to wander indefinitely in 
a wrong direction in search of truth, in order to secure to him the merit 
of discovery. They consider a course of education as divided into two 
parts — the period of developement and the period of acquisition. _ In the first 
period, which they consider as particularly devoted to developing the facul- 
ties and forming the habits of the mind, in order to prepare it as an instru- 
ment for future operations, they employ the inductive process chiefly. 
Time is not here of so much importance/as the habit of investigation and 
effort, which can only be acquired by meeting and overcoming difficulties. 
This period, which must be made longer or shorter according to the char- 
A 2 



VI PREFACE. 

acter of the pupil, or the necessity that his circumstances in life may im- 
pose, is succeeded by the period of acquisition, in which the mind is more 
especially called upon to exercise the powers which have been previously de- 
veloped and cultivated, in the acquisition of such positive knowledge as may 
prepare the individual for life and action. The inductive process is still 
employed as much as possible, not only because it has become for many 
cases the shortest and most agreeable, but because it is important to main- 
tain the habits it has produced, and invigorate the faculties it has served to 
develope. 

" But still it is far less employed than previously, and the pupil is never 
suffered to waste his time in attempting to create a science for himself, 
and thus deprived of the benefit of the experience of sages and centuries. 
On the contrary, they deem his mind capable of being elevated even more 
rapidly by following the processes of patient investigation, by which the 
most exalted minds have arrived at results that astonish and delight him, 
and of thus learning to imitate strides, which seem to him like those of a 
giant, and to cultivate those habits of untiring attention, which the greatest 
philosophers have declared to be the principal source of that telescopic 
glance, that almost unerring power of discrimination, which seems to 
others so nearly miraculous. 

" Such is the Productive System, by which the powers of the pupil are 
called into complete exercise by requiring him to attempt a task unaided, 
and then assisting him in correcting his own errors or returning from his 
own wanderings, before he is discouraged by the waste of time and the 
fruitlessness of his efforts. They distinguish carefully between knowledge 
and the means of obtaining it. To cultivate the senses and present the 
objects which they are capable of examining, is to open to the child the 
sources of knowledge — to place before him a book which is ever open, and 
in which he may every moment read. This, they maintain, is the first 
and most obvious part of education, according to the dictates of common 
sense. It is one in which nothing but truth is presented to him, and 
which, by calling his powers into constant exercise, ensures their improve- 
ment, and cultivates a spirit of investigation." 

The preceding extracts are taken from Art. I. Vol. I. No. VI. 
of the American Journal of Education, New Series. The au- 
thor avails himself of this opportunity to express his obligations 
to the conductors of this valuable periodical. A constant peru- 
sal of its pages has afforded him many valuable ideas on the 
subject of education, and he cheerfully acknowledges material 
assistance derived from it in the preparation of the " Productive 
System of English Grammar," which is now respectfully sub- 
mitted to the candid examination of the public. 

THE AUTHOR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



HI. OF THE NOUN. 

Q,. What is your name? 

Q,. What is the name of the town in which you live? 

Q,. What does the word noun mean? 

Ans. The word noun means name. 

Q,. What then may your name be called. 

1. A NOUN. 

Q,. What may all names be called? 

2. Nouns. 

Q. 'Boston' is the name of a place, is 'Boston' a noun, and if so, why? 

3. Boston is a noun because it is a name. 

Q,. 'Hudson' is the name of a river, is 'Hudson' a noun and why? 

Q,. 'Book' is the name of something to read in, is book a noun, and wh} ? 

Q,. Will you now inform me what a noun is? 

4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. 

Q,. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons? Two, the names 
of things? Two, the names of different places? 

Q,. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- 
tences as I read them to you? 

" Thomas and Joseph are in the house." 

"The horse and cow are in the lot." 

f£ The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain." 

<c Trees, corn, potatoes, and apples, grow in the fields." 



HII. NUMBER. 

Q,. What is the meaning of the word number; as, " The number of but- 
tons on your coat"? 

5. Number means a sum that may be counted. 
Q. What does the word singular mean? 

6. It means one. 

Q,. When then I speak of one thing, only, as 'chair', what number is it: 

7. Singular number. 

Q. What then does the singular number of nouns denote? 

8. The singular number denotes one thing. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. Of what number is 'book', and why? 

9. 'Book' is of the singular number, because it means but 
one. 

Q,. Of what number is 'chair', and why? 
Q. What does the word plural mean? 

10. It means more than one. 

Q,. Of what number is 'lamps', and why? 

11. 'Lamps' is of the plural number, because it means more 
than one. 

Q,. Of what number is 'inkstand', and why'? 

Q,. By adding s to 'dove' we have Moves', and es to 'box' we have 'box- 
es'; how then is the plural number of nouns usually formed? 

12. By adding s or es to the singular. 

Q. Will you spell the plural of 'ounce'? 'glass'? 'window'? 'theatre'? 'an- 
tecedent'? 'church'? 'labyrinth'? 
Q,. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 

13. Two, the singular and plural. 

Q. Will you name a noun of the singular number? one of the plural 
number? 



1JIII. GENDER. 

Q,. What does the w r ord gender mean. 

14. Gender signifies sex. 

Q,. What does the word masculine mean? 

15. It means male. 

Q. 'John' is the name of a male, of what gender or sex then is 'John'? 

16. Of the masculine or male gender. 

Q,. What nouns then are said to be of the masculine gender? 

17. The names of males. 

Q. What gender then is 'man', and why? 

18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name 
of a male. 

Q,. Of what gender is 'uncle', and why? 'father'? why? 
Q. What does feminine mean? 

19. It means female. 

Q,. 'Susan' is the name of a female, of what gender then is 'Susan'? 

20. Of the feminine gender. 

Q,. What nouns then are said to be of the feminine gender? 

21. The names of females. 

Q. What gender is 'woman', and why? 

22. 'Woman' is of the feminine gender, because it is the 
name of a female. 

Q,. Of what gender is 'aunt' and why? 'daughter'? why? 
Q. What does the word neuter mean? 

23. It means neither. 

Q. 'Chair' is the name neither of a male nor a female, what gender then 
may it properly be called? 

24. Neuter gender. 

Q. What nouns then may be said to be of the neuter gender. 

25. The names of objects that are neither males nor females. 



NOUNS. 9 

Q,. Of what gender is inkstand,' and why? 

26. Neuter gender, because it is the name neither of a male 

nor female. 

Q,. Of what gender is 'bench'? why? 'chair'? why? 

Q. 'Parent', you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it 
is a name common to both, of what gender then shall we call such nouns 
as 'parent,' 'bird', &c? 

27. Common gender. 

Q. What nouns then may be said to be of the common gender? 

28. The names of such animals as may be either males or 

females. 

Q. Of what gender is 'sheep,' and why? 

29. Sheep is of the common gender because it is the name 
either of a male or female. 

Q. Of what gender is 'robin', and why? 

Q,. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 

30. Four, the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, and the 
common. 

Q,. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender? one of the feminine? 
one of the neuter? one of the common? 

Q. Will you name the gender and number of each noun in the following 
sentences as I read them toyou ? 

" James and William." " Fingers and thumbs." 

"John and the girls." "Women and birds." 

-***$^§««*. 
fllV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word common ', as, " A common com- 
plaint?" 

31. Common means general. 

Q,. Although there are a vast many male children in the world, each one 
may be called by the general name of 'boy'; what kind of a noun, then 
would you call 'boy'? 

32. A common noun. 

Q. When then is a noun called common? 

33. When it is a general name. 
Q. What does the word proper mean? 

34. It means Jit or particular. 

Q,. 'John,' you know, is the particular name of a boy; what kind of a 
noun then may it be called ? 

35. A proper noun. 

Q. When then may a noun be called proper? 

36. When it is a particular name. 

Q,. What kind of a noun is 'Susan' and why? 

37. 'Susan' is a proper noun, because it is a particular 
name. 

Q. What kind of a noun is 'John,' and why? 
Q. What kind of a noun is 'river,' and why? 

38. 'River 5 is a common noun, because it is a general name. 
Q,. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they? 
Q. What kind of a noun is 'girls'? 'Mary'? 'town'? 'New- York?' 'Lon- 
don'? 'boat'? 'chain'? 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. Will you now tell me which words are the nouns in the following 
sentences; which are proper, and which common; also their gender and 
number? 
" Thomas and John." " King and queen. 5 " 

" Susan and Mary." " House and barn." 

flV. PERSON. 

Q,. When a person in speaking says, "I, John, will do it," what person 
do grammarians call 'John'? 

39. The first person. 

Q,. When, then, is a noun of the first person? 

40. When it is the name of the person speaking. 

Q,. When I say, " James, mind your studies," what person do gramma- 
rians call James? 

41. The second person, being the person spoken to. 
Q. When, then, is a noun of the second person? 

4*2. When it is the name of the person spoken to, or ad- 
dressed. 
Q. " William, James has come." What person is 'William,' and why? 

43. Of the second person, because William is spoken to. 

Q,. When I say, " William, James has come," I am speaking to Wil- 
liam about James : of what person, then, is James, and why? 

44. Of the third person, because James was spoken of ; taht 
is, I was talking about James. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person? 

45. When it is spoken of. 

Q,. " Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." What person is 'Thomas'? Why? 
Is 'Rums'? Why? 

Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 

46. Three persons ; the first, second, and third. 

Q,. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which 
common, also, their gender, number, and person? 

"I, James, of Boston." "Boy and girl." 

" Henry, study your book." " William and his sister." 



flVI. CASE. 

Q,. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " he 
is in a good case"; and, when he is lean, that " he is in a bad case": what, 
therefore, doe3 the word case mean? 

47. Case means condition, state, &c. 

Q,. When I say, " Charles strikes William," " William strikes Charles," 
you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the former ex- 
ample i's quite different from his state or condition in the latter : in the one, 
Charles strikes; in the other, he is struck : what, then, is meant by the dif- 
ferent cases of nouns? 

48. The different condition or position they have in relation 
to other words in the same sentence. 

Q,. What does the word nominative mean? 

49. Nominative means naming. 

Q. When I say, u John strikes," he evidently does something: what, 
then, may 'John' be called? 

50. An actor or doer. 



CASES. 11 

Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading 
noun, in what case is 'John' when I say " John strikes"? 

51. In the nominative case. 

ft. What, then, is the nominative case of nouns? 

52. The nominative case is the agent or doer. 

ft. When I say, " The dog runs," in what case is 'dog,' and why? 

53. 'Dog' is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, 

actor, or doer. . 

ft " The cat catches mice." In what case is 'cat, and why.'' 

ft. When I say, " Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object 

here which Thomas is pursuing? 

54. 'Thief? 

ft. What does the word objective mean? 

55. It means belonging to the object. 

ft. In what case, then, may 'thief be reckoned, m the phrase, Thomas 
pursues the thief? 

56. In the objective case. 

ft. What, then, does the objective case denote? 

57. The objective case denotes the object. f 

ft. When I say, " William whips John/' in what case is 'John, and 

58. In the objective case, because * John' is the object. 
Q. What does the word possessive imply? 

59. Possession, ownership, property, &c. 

ft. When I say, " It is John's slate," I mean to say that John owns the 
slate : in what case, then, shall we reckon * John's'? 

60. In the possessive case. 

Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote? 

61. The possessive case denotes possession, property, &c. 
ft. When I say, " Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife. 
ft. In what case, then, is 'Peter's,' and why? 

62. In the possessive case, because ' Peter possesses tne 

knife. 

ft. In the example " John's slate," you perceive that 'John's' ends in s, 
with a comma before it : what is the comma, and what is the s, called in 
grammar? _ , 

63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the 5, an apos- 

trophic 5. _ , 

ft. You also perceive that 'John's' is singular : how, then, do nouns m 
the singular number usually form their possessive case? 

64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter s fol- 
lowing it. -,.'*■• 

ft. ° On eases' wings." Here 'eagles' ' is plural, and in the possessive 
case : how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case? 

65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the addition ot s. 
ft. But if the plural noun does not end in s, as, " men's concerns," how 

is the possessive case formed? # 

66. As the same case in the singular number is formed. 

ft. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to 
have, and what are they? 

67. Three; the nominative, possessive and objective. 

ft. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a word : what, then, 
do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun? 



12 ExNGLISH GRAMMAR. 

68. To tell its different cases or endings. 
Q. Will you decline 'John? 

69. Nominative case, John, 
Possessive case, John's, 
Objective case, John. 
Q. Will you decline 'boy' in both numbers? 

Singular. Plural. 

70. Norn. Boy, Nom. Boys, 

Poss. Boy's, Poss. Boys', 

Obj. Boy. Obj. Boys. 

i Q \wMK n l ™ y V VVilliam ' s coat," you perceive that the noun 'coat' fol- 
lows 'William s : by what is 'William's' said to be governed, and why? 
71. By 'coat,' because it follows ' William's.' 
Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing the possessive 

Hie Possessive case is governed by the follow- 
ing noun. 

/ 3 &,c" William ' s h at" Is 'William's' a proper or common noun? Why? 

a ^' J£ h wiV? person? Wh y ? ( 45 ■>* Its "umber? Why? (8.)* Its gen- 
der? Why? (17.)* Its case? Why? (61.)* What noun follows 'William*' 
What word, then, governs 'William's'? What is the rule? 

Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in 
sentences, in the same manner as we have those of 'William's ' above, what 
is the exercise called? 
72. Parsing. 

exercises in parsing. 
"John's knife." 

73. 'John's' is a noun, because it is a name — proper, because it ifl a par- 
ticular name— third person, it is spoken of— singular number, it means 
but one— masculine gender, it is the name of a male— possessive case, 
it implies possession, and it is governed by the noun 'knife,' according to 

Rule I. The Possessive case is governed by the following noun. 

Knife is a noun, it is a name — common it is a general name — third 
person it is spoken of— singular number it means but one— neuter 
gender, it is neither male nor female. 

3 Let the learner parse the foregoing, till the mode of parsing the 
noun is so familiar to him that he can do it readily, without looking in the 
book: he may then take the following exercises, which are to be parsed in 
a similar manner. 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
(i Peter's cap." « Stephen's coat." " Brother's knife. 3 ' 
" John's slate." « Father's house." " Boys' hats." 

•***© @©+*** 
ffVII. OF ARTICLES. 

Q. When I say "Give me a book," I evidently mean no particular 
book; but when I say, " Give me the book," what do I mean? 

74. Some particular book. 

Q,. Which are the words that make this difference in meaning? 

75. <A' and <the.» * 

*£efer back to this number. 



ARTICLES. 13 

Q,. What are these little words called ? 

76. Articles. 

Q,. What then are articles ? t . t 

77. Articles are words placed before nouns to limit their 

meaning. 

Q,. What is the meaning of the word definite f 

78. Definite means particular. 

Q,. " Give me the book." Here a particular book is referred to ; what 
kind of an article then shall we call <the' ? 

79. Definite Article. 

Q,. What then is a Definite article ? 

80. It points out what particular thing or things are meant. 
Q. The word in, when placed before words, frequently signifies not ; 

what then will indefinite mean ? 

81. Not definite. 

Q. When I say " Give me a knife," no particular knife is meant; what 
kind of an article then may * a' be called ? 

82. Indefinite article. 
Q,. Why is it so called ? 

83. Because it is not used before the name of any particular 

person or thing. 

Q,. We say * an apple,' ' an inkstand,' &c. in preference to i a apple,' ' a 
inkstand,' &c. why is this ? 

84. Because it is easier to speak, and also more pleasant to 

the ear. 

Q. What kind of letters do < apple' and l inkstand' begin with ? 

85. Vowels. 

Q,. In what cases do we use an instead of a ? 

86. Before words beginning with the vowels a, e, i, o, u. 

Q,. In speaking, we say " a man," not " an man j" when then do we 
use a ? 

87. Before words beginning with consonants. 
Q,. Which letters are consonants ? 

88. All the letters of the alphabet, except the vowels, which 
are a, e, i, o, u, and also w and y, except at the beginning of 
words, when they are consonants. 

Q,. How then do a and an differ? 

89. Only in their use ; a being used before consonants and 
an before vowels: both are called by the same name. 

Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they ? 

• 90. Two ; a or an, and the. 

Q,. It is customary to say " A boy," not "A boys ;'';also, " An inkstand,' 
not " An inkstands ;" of what number then must the noun be before which 
the indefinite article is placed ? 

91. The singular number. 

Q. What then is the rule for the indefinite article ? 

RULE II. 

The Indefinite Article, a or an, belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 

Q. We can say " The boy," and " The boys>" using a noun either of 

B 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the singular or plural number, after the) what then is the rule for the defi- 
nite article? 

RULE III. 

The Definite Article the belongs to nouns in 
the singular or plural number. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING, 

"The boy." 

92. * The' is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit their mean- 
ing— definite, it means a particular boy— and belongs to 'boy' according to 

Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular or plu- 
ral number. 

* Boy' is a noun, it is a name— common, it is a general name — mascu- 
line gender, it is the name of a male — third person, it is spoken of— 
and singular number, it means but one. 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
" A hand." " An eagle. 55 " The man." " The boys' hats." 
" A man." " An insect." » The men." " A man's cap." 
"A mite." "An acorn." "The bovs." " The girls' room." 
"A month." "An ounce." "The mice." " The lady's box.'* 



IT VIII. OF ADJECTIVES. 

Q,. When I say " John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy," I use 
certain words to describe boy : which are they i 

93. ' Industrious/ f obedient,' and c good.' 

Q,. When I say " A good man," to what word is the describing word 
' good' joined or added ? 

94. To the noun ' man.' 

Q,. What does the word adjective mean ? 

95. Joined or added to. 

Q,. What then shall we call such describing words as' good/ 'obedient/ 
' industrious/ &c? 

96. Adjectives. 

Q,. What then are adjectives ? 

97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns to describe or quali- 
fy them. 

Q. " A wise man." Which word is the adjective here, and why ? 
Q. " Rufus is a good boy, but James is a better one." How are Rufus 
and James spoken of here ? 

98. In comparison with each other. 

Q,. The adjectives in the last example are < good' and i better / can you 
tell me which of these words denotes a higher degree of excellence than the 
ot/ier ? 

99. The word < better/ 

Q. What degree of comparison then shall we call « better ?' 

100. Comparative degree. 

Q. What then does the comparative degree imply ? 

101. A comparison between two; 

Q,. " William is tall, Thomas is taller, but Rufus is the tallest of the 
three." What is meant here by < tallest'? 

102. Exceeding all the three in height. 



ADJECTIVES. 15 

Q. What does the word superlative mean ? 

103. Exceeding all ; the highest or lowest degree. 
Q,. What degree of comparison then shall we call ' tallest ?' 

104. Superlative degree. 

Q,. What then does the superlative degree do ? 

105. It increases or lessens the positive to the highest or 
lowest degree. 

Q,. When I say " James is a good boy," I make no comparison between 
him and any other, but simply assert, in a positive manner, that James is a 
good boy."" What kind of a sentence then would you call this ? 

106. A positive sentence. 

Q,. Of what degree of comparison then shall we call ' good ?' 

107. The positive degree. 

Q,. What then does the positive degree do ? 

108. It merely describes without any comparison. 
Q,. Will you compare * great ?' 

109. Positive great, Comparative greater, Superlative great- 
est. 

Q,. Will you compare l wise' in the same manner. 

Q. ' Wise' and * great' are words of one syllable ; how then are the com- 
parative and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed ? 

1 10. By adding r or er, st or est to the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare ' small? ' c high ?' < mean V 
Q,. Will you compare i beautiful V 

111. Pos. beautiful, Comp. more beautiful, Sup. most beau- 
tiful. 

Q,. How many syllables compose the word ' beautiful?' 

112. Three. 

Q. How then are words of three, or mere syllables than one, usually 
compared ? 

113. By placing 'more' and ' most' before the positive. 

Q,. Will you in this manner compare ' industrious ?' < ingenious ?' ' duti- 
ful ?' 

Q. Will you compare ' wise' by using the words ' less' and c least V 

114. Pos. wise, Comp. less wise, Sup. least wise. 

Q,. Will you in like manner eompare ( benevolent?' 'distinguished?' 'dila- 
tory* ? 

Q,. " Good men, better men, best men." Which adjective here is the 
positive and why ? (108.) Which the comparative ? Why? (101.) Which 
the superlative? Why? (105.) 

Q,. fc Good,' you perceive, is not compared regularly, like 'great,' 'beauti- 
ful,' &c. and since there are many words of this description, I will give you 
a list of the principal ones, together with others, regularly compared ; will 
you repeat the comparative and superlative degrees as I name the positive ? 

115. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

Good, Better, Best. 

Little, Less, Least. 

Much or many, More, Most. 

Bad, ill, or evil, Worse, Worst. 

Near, Nearer, Nearest or next. 

Old, Older, Oldest or eldest. 

Late, _ Later, Latest or last. 

Q,. From the foregoing, how many degrees of comparison do there ap- 
pear to be, and what are they ? 

116. Three, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative, 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q,. Adjectives, you recollect, describe nouns ; to what then do they nat- 
urally belong? 

RULE IV. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de- 
scribe. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING, 

" A wiser child. " 
117. l A' is an article— -a word placed before the nouns to limit their 
meaning— indefinite, it means no particular child, and belongs to ' child' 
agreeably to 

Rule II. The indefinite article _ a or an belongs to nouns of the singu- 
lar number. 

1 Wiser' is an adjective — a word joined with a noun to describe it— pos. 
wise, comp. wiser, sup. wisest — made in the comparative degree, and be- 
longs to child by 
Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe. 
'Child'is a noun — it is a name. — Common it is a general name.— Common^ 
gender it may be either male or female, third person — it is spoken of 
and singular number, it means but one. 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
1. 2. 3. 

" A dutiful son." " An ugly child." cc The base man." 
" An idle boy." " An irksome task." « The whiter cloth." 
" A foolish son." " A mild reply." " The milder weather." 

4. 5. 

cf The greatest man." f c The more (1 ) benevolent citizen." 

" The wisest prinoo." tc The must (l) suitable method." 

« The noblest man." " The least(l) distrustful friend. ' 

6. 7. 

" A large, convenient, and airy " The last choice." 

habitation." " The best man." 

"The intelligent, industrious " The nearest relations." 

obedient, and(l) docile " Johnson's (2) large dictionary." 
scholar. " Murray's small grammar." 

IT IX. OF PRONOUNS. 

Q,. When I say " John goes to school, John learns fast, and John will 
excel," how can I speak so as to avoid repeating < John' so often ? 

118. By using the word c he' in its place; thus, " John goes 
to school, he learns fast, and he will excel." 

Q,. What little word then may stand for l John V 

119. He. 

Gt What docs the word pronoun mean ? 

120. Standing for, or instead of a noun. 
Q. What then shall we call the word' he,' above ? 

121. A PRONOUN. 

Q,. What then is a pronoun ? 

1, To be omitted in parsing. 2. Johnson's is governed by ( dictionary,' by Rule I. 



PRONOUNS. 17 

12*2. A pronoun is a word used for a noun, to avoid a repe- 
tition of the same word. 

Q. When James says " I will study," you perceive that * I' stands for 
the person speaking ; what person then is it ? (39.) 

Q,. When I say " James, you must study," the word i you' evidently is 
applied to < James,' who is spoken to ) what person then ought ' you' to be ? 

123. The second person. 

Q,. When I say c he' (meaning William) should learn," what person 
ought ' he' to be and why ? 

124. The third person; because it stands in the place of a 
noun which is spoken of. 

Q,. If I invariably stands for the first person, ijou for the second, and he 
for the third, how can we tell the different persons of pronouns? 

125. By the pronouns themselves. 

Q. What have these pronouns been called from this circumstance ? 

126. Personal Pronouns. 

[T-TI vvill now give you a list of all the personal pronouns, 'which you 
must first examine carefully, and then answer such questions on them as 
may be asked you. 

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

First Person. 

127. Sing. Plur. 

Norn. I. We. 

Poss. My or mine. Ours or our. 

Obj. Me. Us. 

Second Person. 
Sing. Plur. 

JVbw. Thou or you. Ye or you. 

Poss. Thine or thy, Yours or your. 

yours or your. 
Obj. Thee or you. You. 

Third Person Masculine. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. He. They. 

Poss. His. Theirs or their. 

Obj. Him. Them. 

Third Person Feminine. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. She. They. 

Poss. Hers or her. Theirs or their. 

Obj. Her. Them. 

Third Person Neuter. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. It. They. 

Poss. Its. Theirs or their. 

Obj. It. Them. b2 



IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. Will you decline ' I' in both numbers? l Thou' or 'you?' ' He V 
'She?' 'It?' 

Q,. In what person, number, and case is ' I?' 'We?' <My? ? 'Mine?' 
1 Our or ours ?' < Me ?' ■ Us ?' < Thou ?' ■ Ye ?' < His ?' < They ?' < Them ?' 

Q,. In what gender, person, number, and case is ' He ?' 'She?' 'It?' 
' His?' 'Hers?' 'Her?' 'Him?' 

Q,. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they ? 

128. Two; the singular and plural. 
Q,. How many cases, and what are they ? 

129. Three; the nominative, the possessive, and the objec- 
tive. 

Q,. How many persons ? 

130. Three; the first, second, and third. 
Q,. How many genders ? 

131. Three; the masculine, feminine, and neuter. 
<d. How many pronouns are there in all, of the first person ? 
132 How many of the second, and how many of the third? 

Q,. The pronouns of the nominative case, singular, are called leading 
pronouns, how many of these are there? 

133. Five; I, thou, or you, he, she, it. 

Q,. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the singular and 
plural numbers, also the nominatives plural, reckoned in the number of the 
leading pronouns ? 

134. Because they are all considered as variations of the 
nominative singular. 

Q, To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender ? 

135. To the third person singular, he, she, it. 

Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made always to repre- 
sent a different gender ? 

136. The first and second persons being always present, their 
genders are supposed to be known. 

Q. If, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, 
and peison ought they to have? 

137. The same as the nouns for which they stand. 

Q. What then may be considered a rule for the agreement of the pro- 
nouns? 

RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand, in gender, number, and person. 

QUESTIONS ON PARSING. 
Q. How many different sorts of words have we now found, and what 
are they ? 

133. Four; the Noun, the Article, the Adjective, and the 
Pronoun. 

Q. The word part, you know, means division ; and speech, the power of 
using words, or language:, what therefore shall we call these grand divi- 
sions of words ? 

139. Parts of Speech. 

Q,. When then I ask you what part of speech ' boy' is, for instance, what 
do you understand me to mean ? 

J 40. The same as to ask me whether *boy ? is a noun or not. 



VERBS. 19 

Q. What part of speech, then, is 'William/ and why? (36.) 

1. "He went to school." 

2. "She went to her task." 

3. "William went to his play." 

4. "John returned from his school." 

5. "I request you to mind your studies." 

6. "The book was mine, but now it is yours." 

Q,. Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing examples? 

Q,. How many are there in all ? 

Q. What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first? second: 
third? fourth? fifth? sixth? 

Q. What is the gender of 'his/ in the fourth sentence? why? (137) Its 
number? why? (137.) Its person? why? (137.) Its case? why? (61.) 

Q. Will you name the nouns in the first sentence? in the second? third? 
fourth? fifth? sixth? 



1TX. OF THE VERB. 

Q,. When I say, "James strikes William/' which word tells what James 
does? 

141. 'Strikes.' 

Q. The word verb means word, and as the words in all sentences, which 
tell what the nouns do, are the principal ones, what shall such words be 
called? 

142. Verbs. 

<ot. If, in the phrase " William strikes James," we leave out the word 
'strikes,' you perceive at once that the sense is destroyed : what reason, 
then, can you give, for calling some words in a sentence verbs, and others 
by a different name? 

143. The words which we call verbs are the most important. 
Q,. "William studies his lesson." Which word is the verb here, and why? 

144. 'Studies/ because it tells what William does. 

Q,. When I say, "John dances," which word is the verb, and why? 
Q,. When I say, "James strikes John," which word shows that an ac- 
tion is performed? 

145. 'Strikes.' 

Q,. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call 'strikes?' 

146. An active verb. 

Q. What kind of a verb is 'walks/ in this sentence, "John walks/' and 
why? 

147. 'Walks' is an active verb, because it expresses action. 
Q. "'He beat William. " Which word here is the verb? Is 'William' 

an agent or an object? 

148. An object. 

Q,. When I say, "The child walks," 'walks/ it is true, is an active verb, 
but it has no noun after it for an object, as 'beat' has, in the phrase above; 
neither can we supply one, for we cannot say, "The child walks" eny 
thing; what, therefore, is to be inferred from this fact, in regard to the na- 
ture of active verbs? 

149. That some active verbs will take nouns after them for 
objects, and others will not. 

Q,. We will next notice this difference. The term transitive means 
passing over; and when I say, "William whips Charles," the verb 'whips' 
shows that the action which William performs, passes over to Charles as 
the object. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call 'whips'? 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

150. An active-transitive verb. 

Q. What, then, is an active transitive verb? 

151. It is one that either has, or may have, an object after it. 
Q. 'Walks,' we found, would not take an object after it; and ^intran- 
sitive means not passing over, what shall we call such verbs as 'walks'? 

152. Active-intransitive verbs. 

Q,. What, then, is an active-intransitive verb? 

153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses action, 
but will not take an object after it. 

Q. When I say, "He eats it", "He beats him," we immediately deter- 
mine that 'beats' and 'eats' are active-transitive verbs, by the objects after 
them; how, then, may transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished? 

154. When we can place 'him' or 'it 5 after any active verb, 
and make sense, it is transitive; otherwise, it is intransitive. 

Q. "James remains at home — sleeps at home — is at home." Which 
words are the verbs here? 

155. 'Remains, 3 'sleeps,' and 'is.' 

Q. These verbs do not imply action like 'strikes/ 'beats/ &c; what do 
they imply? 

156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state. 

Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter, 
(signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor 
passive. On a future occasion I will make you fully acquainted with a 
passive verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose, that you perceive the 
reason of the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb? 

157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or ex- 
istence in a certain state. 

Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct defini- 
tion of a verb? 

J 58. A verb is a word which signifies action or being. 
When I say, "I strike," in what number and person is 'strike,' and whyl 

159. 'Strike' is of the first person singular, because its agent, 
'I,' is of this person and number. 

Q,. Hence you may perceive, that verbs, in themselves considered, do 
not have person and number; why, then, are they said to have these prop- 
erties at all? 

160. On account of the connexion which they have with their 
agents or nominatives. 

Q. We say, "I write," and "He writes/' hence you perceive that the 
ending of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies: what, then, 
will be the rule for the nominative case? 

RULE VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb in num- 
ber and person. 

Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, in 
what respect must the verb agree with its nominative case? 

RULE VII. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

Q, When I say, "James beats him," the pronoun 'him' is the object of 



VERBS. 



what, 



the action denoted by 'beats,' and is, therefore, in the objective case; 
then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs? 
RUJLE VIII. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

Q,. I will now give you the different endings of the verb 'love,' in its 
different numbers and persons. Will you repeat them? 

Singular. 
161. First Person, I love, 

Second Person, You love, 
Third Person, He loves. 

Plural. 
First Person, We love, 
Second Person, Ye or you love, 
Third Person, They love. 
Q,. Will you repeat the variations of 'am'? 

" Singular. Plural. 

162. 1. Pers. I am, 1. Pers. We are, 

2. Pers. You are, 2. Pers. Ye or you are, 

3. Pers. He is. 3. Pers. They are. 

Q. Will you repeat, in the same manner, the variations of 'hate'? 'de- 
sire,? 'read'? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

"I study my lesson. 55 

163. T is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— personal, it al- 
ways denotes the same person, (the first; first person— it denotes the 
speaker, singular number, it means but one— J\om. '//—made in the 
nominative case to ' study,' according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in number and person. 

' Study' is a verb, it expresses action — transitive, it admits an object 
after it— 1. Pers. I 'study,' made in the first person — singular number 
because its nominative '1', is, with which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree icith its nominative case in number and 
person. 

' My' is a pronoun, a word used for a noun— personal it always repre- 
sents the same person — first person, it represents the person speaking. 
jYom. '/,' Poss.'my,' or 'rame'—made in the possessive case, and govern- 
by the noun ' lesson,' according to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. 

' Lesson' is a noun, common; it is a general name — neuter gender, it is 
neither male nor female, third person it is spoken of— singular number 
it means but one — and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb 
'study,' and governed by it, according to 

Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs governthe objective case. 
" John reads his book. 55 

164. 'His' is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it 
uniformly stands for the same person — third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, according to . 

Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in 
gender, number and person. 

Norn. ' He,' Poss. ' His' — made in the possessive case, and governed by 
the noun ' book,' agreeably to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the folloicing noun. 

IEF The remaining words, ' book,' ' reads' and ' John' are parsed as be- 
fore. 

[£? In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. except they 
are of the third person. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
Transitive Verbs. 
1. 
Ci I lament him." " We love our children." 

" You make a knife." <£ An industrious man gains 

" He cuts his finger." wealth." 

u We dismiss him." "Alexander conquered the 

£C Ye derive comfort." world." 

" They strike us." " Good children mind their 

" You beat William." parents." 

" She hears them." 

Intransitive Verbs. 
2. 
"I walk." " You smile." " John swims." 

" James runs." " They wink." " Birds fly." 

" William hops." " We dance." " Lions roar." 

Neater Verbs. 
" William is(l) discreet. "(2) " John's wife is fortunate." 
" James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy." 

" He was studious." " The eagle's flight was sudden." 

" Fie became intemperate." " The scholar's duty is plain." 

" Thou art wise." " The judge's pay is sufficient." 



1TXT. INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE. 

Q,. When James says, ' I will learn," he evidently means, by his man- 
ner of speaking, to express his intention to learn ; but when he says, " I 
c,an learn," what does he mean ? 

i65. That he has the ability to learn. 

Q,. What does the word Mood mean ? 

166. Mood means manner. 

Q,. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote ? 

167. The different manner of representing actions. 
Q. What does the word indicative mean ? 

168. Declaring or shoiving. 

Q,. When I say, u William has studied," I declare some fact: in what 
mood, then, shall we class ' has studied? 

169. In the indicative mood. 

Q. When I say, " Has William studied?" the only difference between 
jhis phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words 
so as to show that a question is asked : in what mood then shall we call 
" Has William studied ?" 

170. Indicative mood. 

Q,. What then is the Indicative mood used for ? 

171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, indicating or 
declaring a thing, or asking a question. 

(1.) " Is," is a verb — it implies being — neuter it is neither active nor pas- 
sive, but expresses being, merely — 1. Pers. lam, 2. Pers. You are, 3. Pers, 
He or- < William' is — made in the third person, singular, because c Wil- 
liam,' its nominative, is, and agrees with William, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and per* 
son. 

(2.) « Discreet' belongs to < William,' by Rule IV. 



VERBS. 23 

Q,. In what mood is " They do sing ?" Why ? (171.) 
Q,. What /iocs the word tense mean? 

172. Tense means time. 
Q,. What does present mean ? 

173. Present means now, 

Q. When I say " The bird sings," I mean that the bird sinrs now • in 
what tense then is ' sings ?' 

174. In the Present tense. 

Q. What then is the Piesent tense used for ? 

175. The Present tense is used to express what is now taking 
place. & 

Q. In what tense is " The dog runs?" Why? (175.) 
m Q, " James wrote." « James has written." These phrases denote what 
is past ; m what tense are they ? 

176. In past tense. 

^* J^S} does tho ^oid future mean, as " At some future time ?" 

177. future means yet to come. 

- ^~l n r hat , ten ^ e are the P hrases > " l wil1 come," « I shall have come ?' 
1/8. In the Future tense. 

Q, How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what 
rile tney ; 

179. Three; the Present, Past, and Future. 
f5n^hed V ? hen 1 Say " J ° Im Wrote >" is tke action here s P oken of P^t and 

180.* It is. 
Q,. What does imperfect mean ? 

J 8 1 . Unfinished or incomplete. 

Q, "John was writing when I saw him." This denotes an action un- 
finished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in 
Latin the Imperfect tense : hence the origin of the name selected by English 
grammarians to denote action past and finished ; a term not all significant 
of an action finished in past time : What then does the Imperfect tense 

182 The Imperfect tense expresses what took place in past 
time, however distant. 

writing ^T" ^ 0t V7 te f7\ and h , as , written t0 - da y" Here b " 1 acts of 
Te Prient ti'iief ' more immediate reference to 

183. "Has 6 written." 

it %L p1° ;''f, n " uisil xh \ s tense f ""n the Imperfect, grammarians have called 

« J £f 'd 8 6 'r Wl ' at ,l,en Wi " tl,e Pcrffict tense ex P res S ? 

i»4. ihe Perfect tense expresses what has taken place, and 
also conveys an allusion to the present time 

finidJ/w 68 ri t rC! f b , ef0Te * X Wrole -" Here > both acts »™ past and 
nmslied, but which took place first? 

185. The act of reading. 

Q,. What does the word pluperfect mean ? 

18G. More than the perfect. 

^■ WI 2,V en S then Sbali we caI1 " James had ^ad ?" 

187. Ihe Pluperfect tense. 

< i'p^ Vh 'TV the -2>i doeS Uie Plu P erfect t™se express ? 

188. Ihe Pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place 
at or before some past time mentioned 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. « John will come." This you know was called the Future tense, can 

you tell me why? 

189. Because it implies time to come. 

U. What then does the Future tense express? .,..,, , 
] 90. The Future tense expresses what will take place nere- 

a <T'« I shall have learned my lesson by noon." Here, an actionis i to take 

place at a future time specified or mentioned ; and since we already have 
one Future tense, we will call that the First, and this the Second Future 
tense ; what then will the second Future tense express ? 

191. The Second Future expresses what will have taKen 
place at or before some future time mentioned. 

€i. What does synopsis mean ? 

192. A concise and general view. 

Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the different tenses, il- 
lustrated by the verb ' learn ;' will you repeat it ? 

SYNOPSIS. 

193. Pres. tense, I learn, or do learn. 
Imp. tense, I learned or did learn. 
Perf. tense, I have learned. 
Plup. tense, I had learned. 

1st Fut. tense, I shall or will learn. 

2d Fut tense, I shall have learned. . 

O* You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing verb, 
in wch tense of the Indicative mood ; these I wish you to ^ d y jery wre- 
fully that you may be able to answer the questions which will then De aw 

edyou. m , 

194. To learn. 
Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. x „ FluraL 

1. Pars. I learn, 1- Per*. We learn, 

2. fers. You learn, 2. Pers. Ye or you learn, 

3. Pers.. He, she, or it learns. 3. Pers. They learn. 

OR 
When we wish to express energy or positiveness, thus— 
Singular. m J , ? luraL 

1. I do learn, J- We do learn, 

2. You do learn, 2. Ye or you do learn. 

3. He does learn. 3. They do learn. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. w , P} uraL 

1. I learned, 1. We learned 

2. You learned, 2. Ye or you learned, 

3. He learned. 3. They learned. 

OR 

Singular. ^ % Plural 

1. I did learn, 1- We did learn 

2. You did learn, 2. Ye or you did learn. 

3. He did learn.' 3. They did learn. 

Perfect Tense. 

3! He has learned. 3. They have learned. 



VERBS. 25 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had learned, J. We had learned, 

2. You had learned, 2. Ye or you had learned, 

3. He had learned. 3. They had learned. 

1. Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will learn, 1. We shall or will learn, 

2. You shall or will learn, 2. Ye or you shall or will learn, 

3. He shall or will learn, 3. They shall or will learn. 

S. Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have learned, 1. We shall have learned, 

2. Yoq will have learned, 2. Ye or you will have learned, 

3. He will have learned. 3. They will have learned. 

* # * For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second person singular, aa 
given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted. 

Synopsis. 

195. 2d Pers. Sing. Pres. Thou learnest or dost learn. 
2d Pers. Sing. Imp. Thou learnedst, or didst learn. 
2d Pers. Sing. Perf. Thou hast learned. 

2d Pers. Sing. Plup. Thou hadst learned. 
2d Pers. Sing. 1st Put. Thou shalt or wilt learn. 
2d Pers. Sing. 2dFut. Thou wilt have learned. 
Q,. In what mood is " I learn ?" Why ? (171 ) In what tense? Why? 
(175.) In what mood and tense is "He learns?" "We learn?" "I did 
learn?" " I have learned?" " I had learned?" " I shall or will learn?" " I 
shall have learned?" 

Q,. In what person and number is u I learn?" "You learn?" u We 
learn ?" " They had learned ?" " He shall learn ?" " We had learned?" 
Q,. W T hat does the word auxiliary mean ? 

196. Auxiliary means helping. 

Q. In the phrase " I will sing ;" 'will,' you perceive is used to help 
form the Future tense of ' sing ;' c will,' is therefore called an auxiliary 
verb, and the verb c sing' is reckoned the principal verb. What then are 
auxiliary veibs ? 

197. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which are 
formed the different tenses, moods, &c. of the principal verbs. 

Q,. The auxiliary verbs are not unfrequently denominated the signs of the 
tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auxiliary peculiar to itself; 
what then is the sign of the second Future ? 

198. Shall or will have. 

Q,. What is the sign of the first Future ? 

199. Shall or will. 

Q,. What is the sign of the Pluperfect ? 

200. Had. 

Q,. What is the sign of the Perfeet? 

201. Have. 

Q. What is the sign of the Imperfect ? 

202. Did. 

Q,. We can say " I did strike yesterday," or " I struck yesterday ;" how- 
then can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign 4 did?' 

203. If we can place » yesterday' after the verb, and make 
sense, it is in the Imperfect tense. 

Q. What is the sign of the Present tense ? « 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

204. Do, or the first form of the verb. 

Q,. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the Indicative mood ap- 
pear to have, and what are they? 

205. Six; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Plu- 
perfect, the First and Second Future tenses. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

"They have arrived." 

206. \ They' is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun, personal — it 
always represents the same person — third person — it denotes the persons 
spoken of— PLURAL--it means more than one, JVom. 'He,' Poss. l His,' 
Obj. ( Him.' Plural. JVom. t They ;' made in the nominative case to { have 
arrived' according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb. 

c Have arrived' is a verb — a wordthat implies action or being — active — 
it implies action, intransitive — it does not admit of an object — Indicative 
mood — it simply indicates or declares a thing — Perfect tense — it ex- 
presses what has just taken place — 1. I have arrived, 2. You have arrived* 
3. He has arrived. Plural 1. We have arrived, 2. Ye or you have arrived, 
3. They have arrived — made in the third person plural, because its ; 
nominative 'They,' is, and agrees with it according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and 
person. 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
1. 
u They had come." Cf The sun has risen." 

" We did go." " Dogs will fight." 

" The bird will return." " Lions will roar." 

2. 
" James loves William," " Columbus discovered America." 

<c Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness." 

ef I have beaten them." cc He will learn his lesson." 

" She had beaten us." " John did make great progress. " 

" You shall assist him." Cf They do study their lessons." 

cc It did disturb me." " Boys love sport," 

3. 
" Do I disturb you!" " Shall I expect your assistance?" 

" Did they learn their lessons'?" " Will a virtuous citizen commit 
Ci Have they recited]" such (1) acts !" 

C( Does the instructor teach us!" " Have you found your knife!" 
Cf Had he dismissed him!" 



ffXII. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Q,. What does " He may write," imply? 

207. Permission or liberty to write. 
Q,. What does " He must write" imply? 

208. Necessity of writing. 

Q,. What does " He can write," imply? 

209. Power or ability to write. 

Q,. What docs " He should write," imply? 

210. Duty or obligation to write. 

Q,. What does " He would write," imply? 

(1.) Adjective. 



VERBS. 27 

211. Will or inclination to write. 
Q,. What does the word potential mean? 

212. Able, or powerful. 

Q. In what mood, then, do grammarians reckon 'can learn,' 'may write;' 
and also 'must write,' 'should write. '&c? 

213. In the Potential mood. 

Q,. Why are all these different forms of representing actions considered 
to be in the Potential mood, a name, as we have seenj peculiar only to 
that form of the verb which implies power ? 

214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and almost 
numberless extent. 

Q,. What then does the Potential mood imply? 

215. The Potential mood implies possibility, liberty, power, 
will, obligation, or necessity. 

Q,. What are the signs of this mood? 

216. May, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 
d. What does the word conjugation mean? 

217. Uniting, combining, ox joining together. 

Q,. You recollect that in varying the verb, we joined the pronouns with 
it; hence this exercise is called conjugation: what, then, do you under- 
stand by the conjugation of a verb? 

218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, numbers and per- 
sons. 

219. Conjugation of the verb 'Learn? 
Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must learn, 1. We may, can, or must learn, 

2. You may, can, or must learn, 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

3. He may, can, or must learn. learn, 

3. They may, can, or must learn. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

learn, should learn, 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. Ye or you might, could, would 

should learn, or should learn, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should learn, should learn. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may, can or must have learned, 1. We may, can, or must have 

2. You may, can or must have learned, 

learned, 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

3. He may, can, or must have have learned, 

learned. 3. They may, can, or must have 

learned. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 
have learned, should have learned? 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. Ye or you might, could, would 

should have learned, or should have learned, 

3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would or 

should have learned. should have learned. 

Synopsis of the Second Person Singular > with thou. 

220. 

Pres. Thou mayst, canst or must learn. 

Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst learn. 

Per. Thou mayst, canst or must have learned. 

Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst have^learned. 

Q,. In what mood is " I may learn?" Why? (215.) 

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with 4?' 'Thou?' 'He?' 'We?' 'Ye?' 
'You?' 'They?' 

Q: In what mood, tense, number and person, is " I can learn?" " You 
may learn?" " You might assist?" " They could have learned?" " He 
must study?" 

Q,. In what mood and tense is " I have learned?" " He shall run?" 
" William did sing?" 

Q. Will you conjugate 'learn' in the Present tense, Potential mood? — 
Will you conjugate 'love' in the same mood, and Imperfect tense? 'Strike,' 
in the Perfect tense? 'Come,' in the Pluperfect tense? 

Q,. How many tenses has the Potential mood? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

"He may return." 

221. 'He' is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it 
invariably represents the same person — third person, it denotes the per- 
son spoken of— singular number, it implies but one — masculine gender 
it represents a male, and in the nominative case, it denotes the agent, 
Nom. 'He' — nominative case to 'may return,' by 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb. 

' May return' is a verb — it implies action or being — active it implies 
action — intransitive it does not admit an object after it — potential 
mood it implies possibility, liberty, &c. — prrsent tense it denotes what 
may be now. 1. I may or can return, 2. You may or can return, 3 . He 
may or can return — made in the third person, singular, because its nom- 
inative 'he' is, with which it agrees, according to 

Rule VII. Ji verb must agree with its nominative case in number ayid 
person. 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
1. 

" He may come." " Boys may learn arithmetic." 

" He might retire." " The wind may have shaken 

"John can assist me." the trees." 

"William must obey his in- " The lady could have procured 
structor." her fan." 

"We may have erred." "James may catch the thief." 

" John's father would go." " They might learn." 

2. 

" I do rejoice." " The committee will visit the 

"We do learn." school." 

" John will resume his task." " An idle boy will find pov- 

" An industrious boy will be erty." 
rich," : ' 



VERBS. 29 

1TXIII. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB 

To be. 
222. When I say, " I am at home," you know that 'am' is a verb, be- 
cause it implies being or existence ; and since to be means to exist, the 
yerb 'am' has been called the verb to be. 

223. Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. You are. 2. Ye or you are, 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, 1. W T e were, 

2. You were, 2. Ye or you were, 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 2. Ye or you have been, 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. You had been, 2. Ye or you had been, 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense, 

Singidar. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. You shall or will be, - 2. Ye or you shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be, 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. You will have been, 2. Ye or you will have been, 

3. He will have been, 3. They will have been. 

PotExNtial Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can or must be, 1. We may, can or must be, 

2. You may, can or must be, 2. Ye or you may, can or must be, 

3. He may, can or must be, 3. They may, can or must be. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, cr 

be, should be, 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. Ye or you might could, would 

should be, or should be, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

C2 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have been, 1. We may, can, or must have 

2. You may, can, or must have been, 

been. 2. Ye or you may, can or must 

3. He may, can, or must have been. have been, 

3. They may, can, or must have 
been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

have been, should have been, 

2^ You might, could, would, or 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

should have been, or should have been, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

224. Synopsis of the second person singular with Thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. Thou art. Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 

Imp. Thou wast. Imp. Thou miglitst,couldst, wouldst, 
Perf. Thou hast been. or shouldst be. 

Plup. Thou hadst been. Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must 

1. Fut. Thou shalt or wilt be. have been. 

2, Fut. Thou wilt have been. Plup. Thoumightst, couldst, wouldst, 

or shouldst have been. 

1TXIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION. 

Q,. Why is < am' a verb ? (158.) What is it sometimes called ? (222) 
Why is it so called? (222.) 

Q,. Will you give the synopsis of the verb i to be' with ' F through the 
Indicative Mood ? 

Q,. Will you conjugate * am' in the Present Indicative ? Imperfect ? 
Perfect? Pluperfect? 1. Future? 2. Future? Present Potential ? Imper- 
fect? Perfect? Pluperfect? 

Q. In what mood, tense, number and person is a I am ? " " Am I ?" " You 
were?" " J have been ?" " Have you been ?" " He may or can be ?" " We 
should be?" M He may have been ?" " They should have been?" " Thou 
shouldst have been ?" " Thou mayst be ?" 

Q,. Will you repeat the synopsis with ' thou ?' 

EXERCISES IN PARSING, 

"The girls were industrious. 35 

225. l Were'is a verb — it implies action or being — neuter it is neither ac- 
tive nor passive, expressing simply being — Indicative mood — it simply indi- 
cates or declares a thing — Imperfect tense it expresses past time, 1. I 
was, 2. You were, 3. He was. Plur. 1. We were, 2. Ye or you were, 3. 
They were, or 'girls' were — made in the third person plural, because 
its nominative l girls' is, with which it agrees agreeably to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree ivith its nominative case in number and 
person. 

1 Industrious' is an adjective — a word joined with a noun to describe it 
— industrious, more industrious, most industrious — in the positive degree 
— it describes, without any comparison and belongs to the noun l girls' ac- 
cording to 

Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns ivhich they describe. 

ILTFor i The' and ' girls' apply Rules III. and VI. 



ADVERBS. 31 

Exercises in parsing continued. 

11 William is attentive." " Am I youngl" 

M John is studious." " Was I wrong 1" 

" We are jealous." " Have we been wicked 1 " 

" Thou art dutiful." " Were they penitent 1" 

" Mary has been intelligent." " Washington was patriotic." 

" The boys will have been dutiful." " Columbus was enterprising 

" Their estate was small." " My wife's mother is sick." 



flXV. OF THE ADVERB. 

Q. When I say " The bird flies swiftly," I do not mean by * swiftly' to 
describe l bird ;' what does ' swiftly' describe ? 

226. The manner of flying. 

Q,. To what part of speech is ' swiftly' joined in the phrase, " The bird 
flies swiftly f" 

227. To the verb 'flies.' 

Q,. What does the word adverb signify ? 

228. Joined to a verb. 

Q. What then shall we call all such words as l swiftly V 

229. Adverbs. 

Q,. " John runs very swiftly." Which word here describes or shows how 
swiftly John runs ? 

230. Very. 

Q,. What is the word ' very' called, and all such words as qualify or de- 
scribe adverbs ? 

231. Adverbs. 

Q,. " Industrious, more industrious, most industrious." What are 'more' 
and ' most' called here and why ? 

232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify adjectives. 
Q,. From the foregoing particulars what appears to be a proper definition 

of adverbs ? 

233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, to qualify or describe them. 

Q,. "John visits me often, but Thomas oftener.'' In this example, we 
see that adverbs may be compared; will you therefore compare 'soonT 

234. Soon, sooner, soonest. 
Q,. Will you compare c wisely ?' 

235. Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 

Q,. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared ? 

236. By the adverbs' more' and i most.' 

Q,. Will you in this manner compare ' admirably ?' ' foolishly?' 
Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as ' soon,' 
above ; but there is a very considerable number the comparison of which is 
not regulated by any general rule. The following list embraces adverbs 
variously compared ; will you repeat the comparative and superlative of 
each, as I name the positive? 

237. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Often, oftener, oftenest, 

Much, more, most. 

Well, better, best. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Justly, more justly, most justly. 

Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 

Justly, less justly, least justly. 

Badly or ill, worse, worst. 

238. Note. — Adverbs, though very numerous, may nevertheless be re- 
duced to a few classes. You will now read with attention the following 
list, and I will then ask you some questions respecting each class. 

1. Of number: as, u Once, twice, thrice, ' : &c. 

2. Of order: as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, final- 
ly," &c. 

3. Of place: as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere, any where, somewhere, 
nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, 
backward, whence, hence, thence, whithersoever," &c. 

4. Of time. 

Of time present: as, u Now, to-dav," &c. 

Of time past: as, " Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hither- 
to, long since, long ago," &c. 

Of time to come: as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, 
henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways," 
&c. 

Of time indefinite: as, "Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, sometimes, 
soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, 
never, again," &c. 

5* Of quantity: as, " Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, 
enough, abundantly," &c. 

6. Of manner or quality: as," Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quick- 
ly, slowly," &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and 
they are generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or 
participle, or changing le into ly: as, "Bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully} 
able, ably; admirable, admirably." 

7. Of doubt: as, "Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance." 

8. Of affirmation: as, " Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, 
yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &c, 

9. Of negation: as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise," 
&c. 

10. Of interrogation: as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," &c. 

Of comparison: as, " More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, 
very, almost, little, alike." &c. 

When a preposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by 
its application : as when we say, " he rides about ;" " he was near falling '" 
" but do not after lay the blame on me." 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the 
letter a used instead of at, on, &c. : as, " Aside, a thirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, 
aboard, ashore, abed, aground, arloat." 

Q. Will you name two adverbs of number? twoof order? two of place? 
two of time present ? two of time past? two of time to come ? two of time 
indefinite ? two of quantify ? two of manner or quality ? twoof doubt? two 
of affirmation ? two of negation ? two of interrogation ? two of comparison? 

Q. Adjectives describe as well as adverbs; how then can you tell one 
from the other ? 

239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe or 
qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

d. This fact should be remembered ; you shall therefore have it in the 
form of a rule; will you repeat it? 

RUJLE IX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 



PREPOSITIONS. 33 

Q,. From ' bad' we form the adverb l badly y how then may a large 
class of adverbs be formed ? 

240. By adding ly to adjectives. 

Q. Will you in this manner iorm an adverb from ' wise V from ' great ?' 
from * sinful V 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" The bird sings sweetly." 

241. 'Sweetly is an adverb — a word used to qualify a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb; in this example it qualifies the verb 
'sings' agreeably to 

Rule IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
'Sings,' 'bird,' and 'the' are parsed as before. 

Exercises in Parsing continued. 
Adverbs qualifying verbs. 
" The soldiers marched slowly.' 3 " They will return soon." 
" The girls sing delightfully. 53 " The boys write admirably." 
" Henry improves rapidly. 33 <c Susan dances elegantly. 33 

Adverbs qualifying adjectives. 
" He was very attentive. 3 ' " James is more studious. 3 ' 

"John is quite busy. 33 "Walter is most studious. 33 

" William is really studious." " Ellen is less happy." 
Adverbs qualifying verbs and other adverbs. 
" You learn grammar very well." " James writes most elegantly/' 
" The boys write too fast." " I will assist you most cheerful - 

" He will come much oftener." ly." 

Adverbs promiscuously used. 
" He has read once." " John is not happy." 

" I will first remind you." " Whither shall I fly!" 

" I saw him yesterday." " My brother sends me the paper 

" I have eaten sufficiently." monthly." 



flXVL OF THE PREPOSITION. 

Q,. To say " The cider is — cellar," would make no sense; can you in- 
form me what would make sense? 

242. u The cider is in the cellar." 

Q. By placing the little word in after " cider is," and before 'cellar' the 
sentence is rendered complete, what office then does l in' perform? 

243. It connects words, and thereby shows the relation be- 
tween them. 

Q,. What does the word preposition mean ? 

244. Placed before. 

Q,. What then may those words like 'in' be called, as they are placed be- 
fore other words to connect them with words preceding? 

245. Prepositions. 

Q. What then are prepositions? 

246. Prepositions are words used to connect words, and there- 
by show the relation between them. 

List of the principal Prepositions. 

247. Of without from off across beside 
to over beyond on athwart out of 
for under at upon around instead of 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by through near among amidst over against 

With above up after throughout according to 

»♦« k, J 7 n about underneath notwithstand- 

into between before against betwixt in ff 

within beneath behind unto between 

Q. VV ill you mention a dozen of the foregoing prepositions' 

Q. Do we say « He works for I/' or, « He works for me?" 

Q,. In what case is 'me?' (127.) 

Q. What case then follows prepositions? 

240. The objective case. 

the^efoTe^epll " ° f SUfficieDt lm P^ance to constitute a rule; will you 

RULE X. 

Prepositions govern the'objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

i( John found his hat in the road " 

249. 'In' is a PREPosmoN-a word used to connect words and show the 

re ation between them-it here shows the relation between 'hat' and road ' 

Koad is a noun— it is a name— common it is a general name, neuter 

GENDER-it is neither male nor female— third person— it is spoken of— 

singular number— it means but one— objeciife case it is the obiect of 

the relation denoted by the preposition <in,' and governed by it according to 

Kule A. F repositions govern the objective case* 

Exercises in Parsing continued. 
« John ran through the house into « I will search the house diligently 

the garden. f or hj m ." 

-We have deceived him to our " We might learn the lesson be- 
sorrow. fore them/' 

We came in season.'' « According to my impression he 

l ou study grammar for your mi- is in fault " 
provement in language/' « Notwithstanding his poverty he 

b rom virtue to vice the progress was the delight of his acquaint- 
is gradual. ances." 4 

" They travelled into France thro' - On all occasions she behaved 
(: * T ta v> . , . , with propriety." 

He hves within his income." "Of his talents we might say 
Without the aid of charity, he much." y 

lived very comfortably by his -We may expect a calm after a 
industry. storm. ; 



ffXVII. OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

r^'v WllG1 l l Say '7? hn T~^ S b ? ok " lhe sense y° u Perceive is incomplete. 
Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense? P 

250. « John reads his book." 

Q, Can you inform me what the foregoing expression is called' 

2ol. A sentence. 

Q. What then is a sentence? 

o 5 r T £ collection of words forming a complete sense. 

u ri fe ? sh ° J rt '! This ex P re6sio » is called a sentence: Can you tell 
me what kind, and why? J 



' The remaining words are parsed as before. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 35 

253. It is a simple sentence because it makes sense, and has 
but one nominative and one verb. 

Q, k What does the term compound mean? 

254. It means composed of two or more things. 

Q. Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of two sim- 
ple sentences; what therefore may it be called? 
£55. A compound sentence. 
Q,. What then is a compound sentence? 

256. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- 
tences connected together. 

Q,. What does the term conjunction signify? 

257. Union, or joining together. 

Q,. In the compound sentence, " John writes and William learns;" the 
simple sentences are joined together by the word 'and;' what word then 
may 'and' be called? 
258. A Conjunction. 

Q,. " The king and queen are an amiable pair." In this sentence words 
and not sentences are connected by 'and;' can you point out the words so 
connected? 

259. King and Queen. 

Q,. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the 
conjunction? 

260. A Conjunction is used to connect words and sentences 
together. 

Q,. When I say " Five and four are nine:" what do I mean? 

261. Five added to four makes nine. 
Q,. What then is implied by 'and'? 

262. Addition. 

Q. When I say " I will go if you will accompany me;" what does the 
conjunction 'if imply? 

263. Condition or supposition. 

Q. What does the word copulative 1 mean. 

264. Uniting, joining, or linking together. 

Q,. 'And/ 'if/ &c. are called copulative conjunctions; can you tell me 
why ? 

265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or continues 
a sentence by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, Stc. 

Q,. The following are the principal Conjunctions of this class: will you 
repeat say six of them? 

266. And, that, both, for, therefore, if 7 then, 
since, because, wherefore. 

Q. When I say " James and John will come," I mean both will come ? 
but when I say " James or John will come," what do I mean? 

267. That either James or John, one of them, will come. 
Q,. Are the words in this sentence then joined or disjoined? 

268. Disjoined. 

Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining? 

269. Or. 

Q. What part of speech is ' or?' 

270. Conjunction. 

Q,. What does the word disjunctive mean? 

271. Disjoining or separating. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q,. What kind of a conjunction, then, shall we call 'or'? 

272. A disjunctive conjunction. 

Q,. " James will come, but Henry will not." Here the two clauses of 
the sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, and the word 'but' 
separates these two clauses: what, then, does this word imply? 

273. Opposition of meaning. 

Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunctive 
conjunction? 

274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences by ex- 
pressing opposition of meaning in various degrees. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class; will you 
repeat several of them? 

275. But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, 
neither, nor, lest, yet, notwithstanding. 

Q,. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions: 
how, then, can you tell the one from the other? 

276. Prepositions show the relation between words, but con- 
junctions express an addition, a supposition^ a cause, or an op- 
position of meaning. 

Q,. " He and she write." In what case is 'her' 'she?' 

Q,. The pronouns 'he' and 'she' you perceive, are both in the same case, 
and connected by the conjunction 'and:' when, then, may nouns and pro- 
nouns be connected? 

277. When they are in the same case. 

Q. " She will sing and dances." How may this sentence be corrected? 

278. " She will sing and dance." 

Q. In what mood and tense is " she will sing?" 

Q. To say "she dance," is incorrect: 'dance,' then, in this example, 
cannot be in the present tense: will you, then, inform me what " She will 
sing and dance" means, when fully expressed? 

279. " She will sing and she will dance." 

Q,. Here 'will dance' is in the future tense, as well as 'will sing': when, 
then, may verbs, in geneial, be connected? 

280. When they are in the same mood and tense. 

Q,. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for the 
use of conjunctions, in connecting words? 

RULE XI. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the 
same case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" John assists his father and mother. " 

281. 'And' is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect words and 
sentences— copulative it connects 'father' and 'mother.' 

'Mother' is a noun — it is a name— common, it is a general name — femi- 
nine gender — it is the name of a female — third person it is spoken of— 
singular number it means but one, and it is one of the objects of 'assists,' 
and is, therefore, in the objective case, and connected to 'father' by the 
conjunction 'and,' according to 

Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and 
Unse, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 



INTERJECTIONS. 37 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
xt I will reward him and them at "She reads well, dances (3.) ele- 

some future time." gantly, and plays admirably on 

" We in vain (1.) look for a path the piano forte." 

between virtue and vice.'' " Intemperance destroys the mind 

" Reproof either hardens or soft- and benumbs the senses of 

ens its object" man." 

" In the morning of life we eager- " You may read this sentence first, 

ly pursue pleasure, but often- and then parse it." 

times meet(2.) with sad disap- cc He has equal knowledge but in- 

pointments." ferior judgment." 

" A good scholar never mutters " John rises early in the morning 

nor disobeys his instructor." and pursues his studies." 

— >*®@#*«~ 
ffXVIII. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Q,. When I exclaim, " Oh! I have ruined my friend," "Alas! I fear ior 
life," which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to 
express passion or feeling? 

282. <Oh!> 'Alas!' 

Q,. What does interjection mean? 

283. Thrown between. 

Q,. What name, then, shall we give such words as " Oh!" "Alas!" &c? 

284. Interjections. 

Q,. What then are interjections? 

285. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sen- 
tences, to express the passions or sudden feelings of the speaker, 

L.IST OP INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Of earnestness or grief ; as, O! oh! alas! ah! 

2. Of wonder; as, Really! strange! 

3. Of calling; as, Halloo! ho! hem! 

4. Of attention; as, Behold! lo! hark! 

5. Of disgust; as, Foh! fy! fudge! away! 

6. Of silence; as, Hush! hist! 

7. Of contempt; as, Pish! tush! 

8. Of saluting; as, Welcome! hail! 

Q,. Will you examine the foregoing list and then name an interjection of 
grief? One of wonder? One of calling? One of attention? One of disgust 3 
One of silence? One of saluting? 

Q,. How may an interjection generally be known? 

286. By its taking an exclamation point after it. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" Oh! I have alienated my friend.'' 

287. 'Oh' is an interjection — a word used to express pas- 
sion or feeling. 

[IXThe remaining words are parsed as before. 

1. " In vain" means the same as vainly. It may therefore be called an adverb- 
ial phrase qualifying « look' by Rule X. 

2. ' Meet' agrees with « we' understood, and is therefore connected to - pursue' 
by the conjunction ■ but' according to Rule XI. 

3. 'Dances' and 'plays' both agree with 'she,' understood, and are, therefore, 
connected; the former to 'reads,' and the latter to 'dances,' by Rule XL 

D 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
" Oh! I must go and see (1) my " Strange! I did not know you.' 1 

dear father before(2) he dies. cc Hush! our instructor is at the 
cc We eagerly pursue pleasure but door." 

alas! we often mistake the road " Fy! how angry he is." 

to its (3) enjoyment." 

1. The sense is " I must go and T must see :" the verb 'see' then agrees with '1/ 
understood, and is therefore connected to 'must go' according to Rule XI. 

2. 'Before, 5 an adverb. 

3. Apply first Rule V. Then Rule I. 



RECAPITULATION. 



Composition. 

flXIX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

238. English Grammar teaches us to speak and write the 
English Language correctly. 

289 r Grammar is divided into four parts, namely: 

290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 
2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 

flXX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature and 
power of letters, and teaches how to spell words correctly. This 
part of grammar is usually learned from spelling-books and dic- 
tionaries. 

292. Orthography means word-making or spelling. 

flXXI. OF ETYMOLOGY. 
293 Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words in 



1TXIX. What does English Gram- Q. How is a knowledge of orthog- 
mar teach? 288. raphy usually obtained? 291, 

Q. Into how many parts is itdivid- Q,. What does orthography mean? 
ed 3 289. 292. 

Q. Wiiat are they? 290. 1TXXI. What does Etymology 

TiXX. What does orthography teach? 291. 
include and teach? 293. 



NOUNS. 39 

the English Language, several grand divisions or sorts, com- 
monly called Parts of Speech. 

294. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of words — 
also their different changes and derivations. 

295. Etymology signifies the origin ox pedigree of words. 

IfXXII. OF SYNTAX. 

296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words into sen- 
tences correctly. 

297. It includes a knowledge of the rules of composition, formed 
from the practice of the best writers and speakers. 

29S. Syntax signifies arranging, or placing together; or, as used 
in grammar, sentence-making. 

HXXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 

299. The words of the English Language are usually divided 
into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech, namely: 

Noun, Pronoun, Preposition, 

Article, Verb, Conjunction, 

Adjective, Adverb, Interjection. 

flXXIV. OF NOUNS. 

300. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing; as, 
man, London , knife. 

SOI. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

Common nouns are general names; that is, they are names 
common to all individuals of the same kind or sort; as, house, 
city, river. 

302. Proper nouns are particular names ; that is, they are 
the names of particular individuals of the same kind or sort; as, 
George, Boston, Mississippi. 

303. When Proper names have an article placed before them, they 
are used as Common names; as, " He is the Cicero of his age." 

304. When a Proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a Com- 

Q,. What does it include? 294. an example? 

Q,. What does the word signify? Q,. How many different kinds of 
295. nouns are there, and what are they? 

tfXXII Q. What does Syntax 301. 
teach? 296. Q,. What does the word 'common' 

Q,. What does it include? 297. mean? 31. 

Q,. What does the word signify? Q,. What is a common noun? 301. 
298. Give an example? 

1FXXIII. Q,. How many different Q. What does 'proper' mean? 34. 
sorts of words are there? 299. Q. What is a proper noun? 302. 

Q. What are they? 299. Give an example. 302. 

Q. What are these sorts of words Q. When proper nouns have an 
commonly called? 299. article before them, how are they 

HXXIV. Q,. What does the word used? 303. Give an example. 
Noun mean?* Q,. Are proper names used as such 

Q. What is a noun? 300. Give in the plural? 304. 

*See HI. 1st answer* 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mon noun ; as, <( the twelve Ccesars," or " the seven Jameses." This 
is obvious from the fact, that a proper name is, in its nature, descrip- 
tive of one object only, and, therefore, essentially singular. Accord- 
ingly, the nouns Spaniard, European , American, &c. are common 
nouns, as well as their plurals, Spaniards, Europeans, Ameri- 
cans, &c. # 

305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by 
the addition of articles or pronouns ; as, " The boy is studious:" 
" That girl is discreet." 

306. When a noun signifies many, it is called a noun of multitude, 
or a collective noun ; as, c< the people," " the army." 

307. c Abstract 9 signifies taken from — hence an abstract noun is 
the name of a quality abstracted from its substance ; as, knowledge, 
goodness, virtue, &c. 

308. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case. 

H XXV. PERSON. 

309. When any person in speaking introduces his own name, 
it is the first person ; as, " I, James, of the city of Boston, do 
give," &c. 

310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second person; 
as, u James, come to me." 

311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is 
the third person ; as, u James has come." 

1TXXVI. GENDER. 

312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the feminine, 
the common, and the neuter. 

314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males; as, 
man, boy, &c. 

Q,. Why cannot proper names 1TXXV. When is a noun of the 
have a plural? 304. first person? 309. Give an example. 

Q,. What do they become when Q,. When is a noun of the second 
so used? 304. Give an example. person? 310. Give an example. 

Q,. What kind of nouns are 'Span- Q,. When is a noun of the third 
jard,' 'Americans,' 'Spaniards?' 304. person? 311. Give an example. 

UXXVI. What does the word 

Q,. What effect does the use of ar- 'gender' mean? 14. 
tides have on common nouns 5 305. Q,. What is 'gender' as applied to 

Q,. What is a noun of multitude, nouns? 312. 
or a collective noun? 306. Give an Q. What does the word 'mascu- 
example. line' mean? 15. 

Q,. What is an abstract noun? 307. Q,. What does the masculine gen- 
Give an example, der of nouns denote? 314. Give an 

Q,. What belong to nouns? 308. example. 

* 'Spain' is the proper name of a country, and 'Spaniard' lias, by some gram-, 
marians, been called the proper name of a people; but the latter is a generic term, 
characterizing any one of a great number of persons, by their connection with, 
[Spain* — Encyclopedia, 



NOUNS. 



41 



315. The feminine gender denotes the name of females; as 

woman, girl. . c , „ • 

316 The common gender denotes the names of such ani- 
mals as may be either male or female; as, parent bird. 

317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects which 
are neither males nor females; as, chair, tabic. 
ar 31SS^e nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a toe o: s^ech as 
it is called, become masculine or feminine; as when we say ot the 
sun, « he is setting/' and of a ship, « she sails well, be. 

319 The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz : 
l.^By different words: as, 

Male. 
Bachelor, 
Boar 
Boy 
Brother 
Buck 
Ball 

Bullock or 
Steer 
Cock 
Dog 
Drake 
Earl 
Father 
Friar 
Gander 
Hart 
Horse 



Female. 

Maid, 

Sow 

Girl 

Sister 

Doe 

Cow 

Heifer 

Hen 

Bitch 

Duck 

Countess 

Mother 

Nun 

Goose 

Roe 

Mare 



Male. 
Husband 
King 
Lad 
Lord 
Man 
Master 
Milter 
Nephew 
Ram 

Singer 

Sloven 

Son 

Stag 

Uncle 

Wizard 



Female. 

Wife 

Queen 

Lass 

Lady 

Woman 

Mistress 

S pawner 

Niece 

Ewe 
$ Songstress or 
\ Singer 

Slut 

Daughter 

Hind 

Aunt 

Witch 

Madam 



2. 
Male. 
Abbot 
Actor 

Administrator 
Adulterer 
Ambassador 
Arbiter 
Baron 
Bridegroom 
Benefactor 
Caterer 



By a difference of termination: as, 

Female. Male. Female. 

Landgrave Landgravine 

Lion Lioness 

Marquis Marchioness 

Master Mistress 

Mayor Mayoress 

Patron Patroness 

p eer Peeress 

Poet Poetess 

Priest Priestess 

Prince Princess 



Abbess 

Actress 

Administratrix 

Adultress 

Ambassadress 

Arbitress 

Baroness 

Bride 

Benefactress 

Cateress 



Q,. What does 'feminine' mean? 19. 

Q,. What does the feminine gen- 
der denote? 315. Give an example. 

Q, What does the common gen- 
der denote? 316. Give an example. 

Q. What does 'neuter' mean? 26. 

Q. What does the neuter gender 
denote? 317. Give an example. 

GL. What is said of nouns, natural- 
ly neuter, in respect to gender? 318. 
Give an example. 

Q,. How many genders do nouns 
have, and what are they? 30. 

m 



a. How many methods are there 

in English of distinguishing sex? 319. 

Q,. Which is the first, as 'boy/ 

Q. Will you spell the feminine 
corresponding to 'brother'? 319. to 
'boy'? 'nephew'? 'wizard ? 'Friar : 
'Sir 2 'drake'? 'earl'? 'gander? 'hart ? 
'king'? 'lad'? 'man'? 'master'? 'singer : 
'sloven'? 'son'? 'stag? 'uncle? 

Q,. Will you spell the masculine 
corresponding to 'maid? <girl' ? 'coun- 
tess'? 'madam'? 'daughter'? 'niece ; 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Male. 
Chanter 
Conductor 
Count 
Deacon 
Duke 
Elector 
Emperor 
Enchanter 
Executor 
Governor 
Heir 
Hero, 
Hunter 
Host 
Jew 



Female. 
Chantress 
Conductress 
Countess 
Deaconess 
Duchess 
Eiectress 
Empress 
Enchantress 
Executrix 
Governess 
Heiress 
Heroine 
Huntress 
Hostess 
Jewess. 



.Male. 
Prior 
Prophet 
Protector 
Shepherd 
Songster 
Sorcerer 

Sultan 

Tiger 
Traitor 

Tutor 
Viscount 

Votary 
Widower 



Female. 

Prioress 

Prophetess 

Protectress 

Shepherdess 

Songstress 

Sorceress 

} Sultaness 

[ Sultana 
Tigress 
Traitress 
Tutoress 
Viscountess 
Votaress 
Widow. 



3. By a noun, pronoun, or 
substantive: as, 

A cock-sparrow 
A man-servant 
A he-goat 
A he- hear 
A male child 
Male descendants 



adjective, being prefixed to the 

A hen- sparrow 
A maid -servant 

A she-goat 
A she-hear 
A female child 
Female descendants. 



ffXXVIL NUMBER. 

320. Number shows how many are meant whether one or 
more. 

321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

322. The singular number expresses but one; as, boy. 

323. The plural number implies more than one; as, boys. 

324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only: as, wheat 
gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness. 



Q. What is the second method of 
distinguishing sex; as, 'abhor? 'ab- 
bess'? 3J9. 2. 

Gt Will you spell the feminin 
corresponding to 'abbot? 'actor'? 'ad 




»«o7 'host', 
'hunter'? 'instructor'? 'Jew'? 'lion 1 ? 

qui"' 3 
tor'? 

SUltuia . «'*rs*-" • iuiui ; ijiuiji r "vic- 
tor"? 'viscount'? 'votary'? 'widower'? 
Q,. Will you spell the masculine 



hunter? 'instructor'? 'Jew'? 'lion 1 ? 
marquis'? 'patron'? 'peer? 'proprie- 
or'? 'shepherd'? 'sorcerer'? 'suitor'? 
sultan'? 'tiger'? 'tutor'? 'tyrant'? 'vic- 
or'? 'viscount'? 'votary'? 'widower'? 



^. .. ... /WM spell the 

corresponding to 'abbess'? 
'duel- 



masculine 

czarina'? 

) 



corresponding to 'abbess'? 'czarina'? 
'duchess'? 'ambassadress'? 'heroine'? 
'huntress'? 'directress'? 'poetess'? 
"prophetess'? 'widow'? 
Q. What is the third method of 



distinguishing sex; 3(9; 3. as, 'a 
man-servant'? 'a maid-servant'? 

Q. Will you spell the feminine cor- 
responding to 'male-child'* 'male- 
descendants'? 

UXXVif. a. What does the 
word ' number' mean ? 5. 

<ol. What does the number of 
nouns show ? 320. 

Q.. What does 'singular' mean ? 6. 

Q. What does the singular num- 
ber of nouns imply ? 322. Give an 
example. 

Q,. What does i plural' mean ? 
10. 

Q,. What docs the plural number 
of nouns imply ? 323. Give an ex- 
ample. 

Q. How aie< wheat,' ' gold,' &c. 
used? 324. 



NOUNS. 43 

325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; as, bellowSj 
scissors, lungs, riches, fyc. 

326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, 
swine. 

327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by ad- 
ding s to the singular; as, sing, dove, plur. doves. 

328. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows : when 
the noun singular ends in x, ch, sh, or ss, we add es to form the 
plural ; as box, boxes, church, churches, lash, lashes, kiss, kisses. 

329. Nouns ending in.fovfe change these terminations into ves to 
form the plural ; as loaf, loaves, wife, wives. 

330. When a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the 
plural is formed regularly ; as key, keys, delay, delays, valley, valleys. 
But ii the y does not have a vowel before it, the plural is iormed by 
changing y into ies, as fly, flies, beauty, beauties. 

331. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any 
general rules. 



Sing. 


Plur. Si?i£f. 


Plur. Sing. 


Plur. 


Man, 


Men. Mouse, 


Mice. Fish, 


Fishes. (3) 


Woman 


, Women. Louse, 


Lice. Cup-ful, 


Cup-fuls. 


Child, 


Children. Cow, 


Cows or Spoonful, 


Spoonfuls. 


Ox, 


Oxen. 


Kine. 




Tooth, 


Teeth. Penny, 


Pence. (1.) Brother-in-law 


, Brothers-in-law. 


Foot, 


Feet. Die, 


Dice. (2.) Court martial, 


Courts-martial. 


Goose, 


Geese. Pea, 


Feas. (3) Brother, 


Brothers or 
Brethren. 


332. 


c Mathematics/ ( 


metaphysics,' c pneumatics,' 


c ethics,' { poll- 



Q. How are ' bellows,' * lungs,' ' tooth?' 'foot?' 'goose?' 'mouse?' 
&c. used? 325. Mouse ?'' brother ?' 'die?' 'fish?' 

Q,. What is said of deer,' ' sheep,' ' spoonful ?' ' court-martial ?' 
&c. ? 326. Q, Will you spell the singular of 

Q,. How many numbers do nouri3 ' lice ?' ' kine ?' ' cows ?' ' brethren ?' 
have, and what are they ? 321. ' oxen V ' teeth V ' pence ?' ' pennies?' 

Q,. How is the plural number 'peas ?' 'fishes ?' 'cup-fuls ?' 'biotheis- 
regularly formed? 327. Give an in-law V 
example. Q,. What is the plural of ' pea?' 

Q. When do we add es to form tho when we refer to quantity ? Of fish ?' 
plural ? 328. Give an example. Q. What is the singular of ban- 

a. What is the plural of ' loaf?' ditti ?' 332. 
329. Q.. In accordance with what laws 

Q,. What is the rule for it ? 329. does 'Antithesis' form the plural ? 332. 

Q,. Will you spell the plural of Q,-. Will \ou spell the plural of 
• delay ?' 330, ' valley ?' What is the i apex ?' ' appendix ?' ' Arcanum ?' 
rule for forming these plurals ? 330. ' Automaton ?' ' Axis?' ' Crisis?' 

Q,. Will vuu spell the plural of ' Basis ?' ' Criterion ?' ' Datum ?' De- 
' fly ?' 330, ' beauty ?' rule for the sideratum ?' ' Effluvium ?' ' Enco- 
plural ? nium ?' ' Erratum?' 'Genius?' ' In- 

Q,. Do ' man,' ( woman,' form dex ?' ' Memorandum V 
their plurals regularly or in egularl}? Q,. Will you spell the singular of 
331. 'bases V 'Beaux?' ' Cherubs V 'Ellip- 

Q,. Will you spell the plural of ses ?' ' Genii V ' Theses ?' c Paren- 
man ?' of woman ?' ' child ?' ' ox ?' theses?' ' Stimuli ?' 'Strata?' 

(1.) Pennies when the coin is meant. (2.) Dies for coining. (3.) Pease and 
jfo/i meaning quantities, but peas and Jishes when number is meant. 



44 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



tics ' &c. are reckoned either as singular or plural nouns. The same 
is equally true of ' means/ 'alms,' 'amends.' 'Antipodes; 'credenda, 
< minutiaV ' literati," fcc, are always plural. < Bandit is now consid- 
ered the singular of < banditti." The noun ' news is always singular. 
Many nouns' form their plurals according to the laws of the language 
from which they are derived. The following are ol this class : 



Singular. 
Genius 
Genus 
Hypothesis 
Ignis fat u us 
Index 



Plural. 
Genii (1.) 
Genera 
Hypotheses 
Ignes fatui 
Indices or Indexes 

(2) 
Laminae 

Magi 

Memoranda or . 

Memorandums 

Metamorphoses 

Parentheses 

Phenomena 

Radii or Radiuses 

Stamina 

Seraphim or 

Seraphs 



Singular. Plural. 

Antithesis Antitheses 

Appendix Appendixes or 

Appendices 

Apex Apices 

Arcanum Arcana 

Automaton, Automata 

Axis Axes Lamina 

Beau Beaux or Beaus Magnus 

Basis Bases Memorandum 

Calx Calces , 

Cherub Cherubim or Metamorphosis 

Cherubs Parenthesis 

Crisis Crises Phenomenon 

Criterion Criteria Radius 

Datum Data Stamen 

Diceresis Dicereses Seraph 

Desideratum Desiderata 

Effluvium Effluvia Stimulus 

Ellipsis Ellipses Stratum 

Emphasis Emphases Thesis 

Encomium Encomia or Vertex 

Encomiums Vortex 

Erratum Errata 

flXXVIII. CASE, 

333. Case means the different state, condition, or relation 
which nouns have to other words in the same sentence. 

334. In English, nouns have three cases, the nominative, the 
possessive, and the objective. 

335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, ana 
always the subject of the verb. 

336. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; as, " John assists 
William ;" here, < John is the subject spoken of, or the nominative 
case to the verb c assists/ % , . 

337. The possessive case denotes possessio n^ow nersn ip, 
ft. How are 'mathematics' 'optics' Q, What does' nonTin^Uve' mean? 

&c. considered in regard to number? 49. . ? 

33P (I. What is the nominative case 



Stimuli 
Strata 
Theses 
Vertices 
Vortices or 
texes 



Vor- 



Q,. Of what number is k means 



? 335. Give an example. 
33VAIrr,s?'< Amends'? Antipodes'? Q. What do you ™*^**J 
'Literati'? 'News- the subject of a verb? 330. Illus- 

1TXXV1II. Q. What is the mean- trate it by an example. 
ml of the word < case ?' 47. Q. What does possessive mean' 69. 

Q What is meant by the case of Q. What does the possessive case 
nouns ? 333 denote ? 337. Give an example 

Q How many cases have nouns U. How may this case be distm- 
and what are they ?' 334. ^Uedjvo^^ 

1 < Genii.' when denoting aerial or imaginary spirits: ■ Geniuses' w^h denot- 
ing persons of genius- 2. 'Indexes' when denoting pointers or tables ot content,, 
1 Indices' referring to algebraic quantities. 



NOUNS . 45 

property, &,c. as, c< Williams book." This case may be distin- 
guished from the other cases by the apostrophe or the letter s. 

338. A noun in the singulaFforms its possessive case by taking the 
apostrophe and the letter s after it; as, " John's hat." 

339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case simply by 
taking the apostrophe ; as, iC On eagles' wings." 

340. When the plural of nouns does not end in s they form their 
possessive case by taking both the apostrophe and the letter s,as "Mens 
houses." 

341 . When the singular ends in ss the apostrophe only is added ; 
as cc For goodness' sake," except the noun ' witness ;' as, " The wit- 
ness s deposition." 

342. Nouns ending in nee form the possessive by adding the apos- 
trophe only ; as, " For conscience sake ;" because an additional s 
would occasion too much of the hissing sound, or increase the diffi- 
culty of pronunciation. 

343. The objective case denotes the object of an action or 
relation. 

344. In the sentence ff John strikes him;' f him' is the object of the 
action denoted by ' strikes ;' and in the sentence, " He went from 
London to York,' ' York' is the object of the relation denoted by the 
preposition ' to.' 

345. DECLENSION OP NOUNS. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative case, Mother, Mothers. 

Possessive case, Mother's, Mothers'. 

Objective case, Mother, Mothers. 



Nominative case, Man, Men. 

Possessive case, Mans Mens'. 

Ojective case, Man. Men. 

RUL.E I. 

The Possessive case is governed by the follow- 
ing noun. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

cc John's wife returned." 



Q,. How do nouns in the singular Q,. Why is not the s added ? 342- 
form their possessive case ? 338. Give Q,. What does the word ■ objec* 
an example. tive' mean ?- 55. 

Q. How do nouns in the plural? 339. Q,. What does the objective case 

Q,. When the plural noun does not of nouns denote ? 343. Give an ex- 
end in s how is its possessive form- ample. 
ed ? 340. Give an example. Q,. What does the declension of 

Q. When the singular ends in s5 nouns mean ?- 68. 
how is the possessive case formed ? Q,. Will you decline l mother ?' 
341. Give an example. 345. 'man ?' ' brother? ' 'hat?' 

Q,. How is the possessive case of * Q,. Will you repeat the rule for 
nouns ending in nee formed? 342. the possessive case? Rule- 1.. 
Give an example. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

346. ' Johns' is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third 
person, singular number, possessive case, and governed by ' wife' 
by Rule J. 

' Wife' is a common noun, of the feminine gender, the third person, 
singular number, and nominative case to ' returned," by Rule VI. 

'Returned" is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, imperfect 
tense — 1. I returned, 2. You returned, 3. He returned, or * wife' re- 
turned — made in the third person, singular, and agrees with ' wife' 
by Rule VII. 

More exercises in Syntax. 
" Williams son has come." " Williams wife's sister remained 

" John s brother died. in town." 

"John makes (1.) boys' hats. " " Rufus studied Johnson's dic- 
" John lost his knife. tionary." 

"The boys neglected their lessons." " Marys bonnet is old." 
" Intemperance ruins its votaries." " Virtue's reward is sure.' (2.) 

" Rufus s hat is new." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Brothers estate." 
347. If you examine the foregoing example, you will find it difficult 
to ascertain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more: 
if of one only, an apostrophe should precede the s, thus; " Brother's 
estate:" but if it belongs to more than one, an apostrophe should fol- 
low the s thus; " Brothers' estate." Mistakes of this sort often oc- 
cur; hence you perceive the importance, in writing, of attending to 
the subject of grammar. 

" Mans' happiness/' 
34S. Incorrect, because c Mans' is in the possessive case, singular 
number, and therefore the apostrophe should be placed before the s 
according to the observations above, and Art. 338. 

Sentences to be parsed and corrected, continued. 
"Johns son departed." " I discovered Marias faults." 

" Susans sister will learn." " Susan made little Harriets bon- 

" Charles task is too difficult." net." 

" I have read Willi's poem." "Johnson makes mens shoes." 

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.* 

349. Will you write down two sentences each containin g a prope r 

Q. In the sentence *' Johns wife Q,. If only one brother is meant, 
returned," will you parse ' John's'? how should the apostrophe be plac- 
1 wife'? 'returned'? 346. ed? How if more than one? 

Q,. Why is ' John's' in the posses- Q,. In the phrase " Mans' happi- 
sive case? 337. ness," why is it incorrect for the 

Q. What kind of a verb is ' return- apostrophe to follow the s? 348. 
ed' ? 346. Q. What is the rule for forming the 

Why? 153. possessive case of nouns? 338. 

Q,. In what case is 'wife?' 346. Q,. Will you now parse ' Man's'? 
Why? 335. Q,. We spell the possessive case of 

3 The pupil may next parse the ' man' thus, m-a-n (apostrophe) s; 
additional exercises in Syntax. will you in like manner spell the pos- 

Q,. In the phrase " Brothers es- sessive of ' John'? ' William'? ' Ru- 
tate," does one brother or more than fus'? ' Women'? ' Boys'? 
one own the estate? 347. O* The remaining exercises are to 

Q,. Why cannot you tell? be corrected as well as parsed. 

' 1. Active-transitive verb. % Adjective and belongs to c reward' by Rule IV.. 

* Either on a slate or in a .small manuscript book kept for die purpose. 



ARTICLES. 47 

noun, as for example " William learns grammar"! One containing a 
common nonnl One containing a noun of the third person singular? 
One of the third person plural and in the nominative easel One hav- 
ing a noun of the second person singular and of the feminine gender? 
One having a noun the name of some article of foodl One having a 
noun the name of some quality? One having a noun of multitude'? 
One having your own name associated with ' book:' as " John Gris- 
com's book"? 

1JXXIX. OF ARTICLES. 

350. Articles are words put before nouns to point them out 
or to limit their meaning. 

351. There are two articles, a or an, and the. 
S52. A or an is called the indefinite article. 

353. The is called the definite article. 

354. The article a is called indefinite because it means no particu- 
lar person or thing; as, ' a house/ ' a man,' that is, any house, any 
man. The article the is called definite, because it means some par- 
ticular person or thing: as c the house,' c the man, meaning some 
particular house, some particular man. 

355. A becomes an before a vowel and before a silent h; as, c an 
acorn,' f an hour.' But if the h be sounded the a only is used, as c a 
hand/ c a heart,' except when the word before which the article is 
placed has its accent on the second syllable ; as, " an heroic action,'* 
cc an historical account." 

356. Before words beginning with u long, a is used instead of an; 
as, " a union," " a university," " a useful thing." 

357. A is also used for an, before the word c one,' because in pro- 
nouncing f one,' we sound it as if written wun. 

358. The article a or an means one, as c an ounce,' c a pound ; that 
is, one ounce, one pound. 

RULE II. 

The Indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 

RULE III. 

The Definite article the belongs to nouns of the 
singular or plural number. 

HXXtX. What is an article? 350. Q. What exception to this? 355. 

Q. What does ' definite' mean? 78. Give an example. 

Q,. What is the called? 353. Why? Q. Do we say <a union' or 'an 
354. Give an example. union?' <A university' or 'an univer- 

Q. What does < indefinite' mean? sity?' Why? 356. 
81- Q,. Do we say 'a one' or c an one? 7 

Q,. What is a or an called? 352. Why? 357. 

Q,. Why? 354. Give an exam- Q. What does the article a mean? 
pie- 358. Give an example. 

Q,. How many articles are there? Q,. What is the rule for the indef- 

351. Name them. inite article? Rule II. 

Q,. When does a become an ? 355. Q. What exception to this rule? 
Give an example. 359. 

Q,. But if the h is sounded which is Q. What is the rule for the indef- 
to be used ? 355. Give an example, inite article ? Rule III. 



43 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

359. Exception. When the adjectives f few,' c great many, c dozen/ 
* hundred/ ' thousand,' &c. come between the noun and article, the 
noun to which the indefinite article belongs, is plural, as " a few 
men," " a great many men," &c. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"The bird flies swiftly." 

360. c The' is a definite article, and belongs to c bird' according to 
Rule III. 

c Bird' is a common noun, of the common gender, the third person, 
singular number, and in the nominative case to c flies' by Rule VI. 

'Flies' is an active-intransitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
1. I fly, 2. You fly, 3. He flies or c bird' flies — made in the third per- 
son, singular, and agrees with c bird,' by Rule VII. 

c Swiftly' is an adverb qualifying ' flies' by Rule IX. 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 

" The boys have arrived seasona- " Children attend the school. 5 ' 
bly. 5 ' " William founded a university." 

" Galileo invented the telescope. " " The grass is green." 

u The boy had an ulcer." " Farmers carry hay into the 

" William gave an historical ac- barn. 55 

count (1.) of the transaction.' 5 "The good scholar obeys his in- 

cc Columbus discovered the conti* structor. 55 
nent of America.' 5 

sentences to be parsed and corrected. 

" He had a ulcer." 

361. Incorrect, because we use a before a vowel except ulong : a 
ihould therefore be an : thus, " an ulcer. 5 ' 

Sentences to be parsed and corrected, continued. 
" A enemy approaches.*' "Three barley corns make a inch." 

<c James procured a inkstand." " Eight drams make a ounce." 
cc He conferred a honor.' 5 <f They formed an union." 

"An unit figure occupies the low- " He quoted an hard saying." 
est place in whole numbers. " Thomas has lost an horse. 53 

sentences to be written. 

362. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definite, 
and in the other the indefinite article! One containing a correctly 
used before u long! One having a definite article correctly used be- 
fore the consonant hi 

Will you write two nouns, the names of different things in the 
school room! Two, the names of different cities'? One sentence 
having a proper noun used as a common noun! 

Q. In the sentence " The bird Q,. Would you say l a ulcer' or 'an 
flies swiftly," how do you parse ulcer?' Why ? 361. 
* the'? ' bird'? ' flies'? < swiftly'? 360. O* The pupil should now take the 

ID" The remaining exercises are remaining sentences to be corrected, 
ntxt to be parsed from the book. He should be required to parse as well 

as correct them. 

1 Apply Rule VIII. 



ADJECTIVES. 49 

ffXXX. OF ADJECTIVES, 

363. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun, to describe 
or define it; as, u An obedient son." 

364. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the 
degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of compari- 
son, the Positive, the Comparative and the Superlative. 

365. The Positive degree simply describes an object; as, 
"John is good." 

366. The Comparative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive in meaning; as, " William is better than John." It implies 
a comparison between two. 

367. The Superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive to the highest or lowest degree; as, u Thomas is the best" 
u Walter is the worst." 

368. It implies a comparison between three or more* 

369. The simple word or positive, if a monosyllable, (1) becomes 
the comparative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding 
st or est to the end of it; as, wise, wiser, icisest; great, greater, great- 
est" 

370. In words of more than one syllable, the comparison is usually 
made by placing the adverbs more and most before the positive; as, 
benevolent, more benevolent, most benevolent. 

371. The comparative degree is sometimes formed by the adverbs 
less and least; as, wise, less wise, least wise. 

372. Dissyllables (2) ending in y, as, 'happy, 5 'lovely, 5 and in le, 
after a mute (3,) as, 'able,' 'ample,' or accented on the last syllable, 
as, 'discreet,' 'polite,' easily admit of er and est; as happier, happiest, 
abler, ablest, &c. Words of more than two syllables, hardly ever 
admit of these terminations. 

373. In some words the superlative is formed by adding the adverb 
most to the end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost, uppermost, &c. 

374. Some adjectives having in themselves a superlative significa- 

HXXX. Q. What is the meaning Q. What is a 'monosyllable'.-' 369. 
of the word ' adjective?' 95. Q,. How are monosyllables com- 

Q,. What is an adjective? 363. pared? 369. Give an example. 
Give an example. Q,. How are dissyllables compar- 

Q,. How many degrees of com- ed? 372. 
parison are there? 3G4. Q. What effect do less and least 

Q,. Will you name them? have on adjectives? 371. 

Q. What does the positive degree Q. What is a dissyllable? 372. 
do? 365. Give an example. Q.Will you spell the comparative 

Q,. What does the comparative de- and superlative degrees of 'able'? 
gree do? 366. Give an example. 'lovely'? 'ample'? 'discreet'? 'po- 

Q. What does it imply? 366. lite'? 372. 

Q. What doe? 'superlative' mean?103. Q,. Which are the mutes? 372. 
Q,. What does the superlative degree Q, How do words of more than two 
do? 367. Give ait example. syllables almost invariably form 

Q,. What does it imply? 368. their comparison? 372. 

I. A word of one syllable. 2. A word of two syllables. 
3. b, k, p, t, and c and g hard, are mutes. 
E 



*0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion do not admit of comparison; as, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, 
infinite, ceaseless, supreme, omnipotent, eternal. 

375. By adding ish to adjectives we have a slight degree of com- 
parison below the positive; as, black, blackish, salt, saltish. 

376. 'Very' expresses a degree of quality but not the highest; as, 
good, very good. 

377. Words used in counting and numbering are called numeral 
adjectives; as, one, tvio, three; first, second, third. These adjectives 
are not compared. 

37S. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article be- 
fore it, becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and may be consider- 
ed as such in parsing; as, "Providence rewards the good and punishes 
the bad." 

RULE IV. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de- 
scribe. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

u John is sincere." 

379. c John' is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and in the nominative case to 'is' by Rule VI.— 
'Is/ is a neuter verb, in the indicative mood, present tense, 1. I am, 
2. You are, 3. He or John 'is,' made in the third person singular, 
and agrees with 'John,' according to Rule VII. 

'Sincere' is an adjective; sincere, more sincere, most sincere, made 
in the positive degree, and belongs to 'John' by Rule IV. 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
" You are studious." " One man has come." 

(C John is more studious." « Two men have departed." 

Cf William is most studious." " Twenty men will sail." 

ff Mary is intelligent." " James wrote his name on the 

ic James is active." first page." 

" Thomas is less active." " Here comes a great man." 

" Charles is happy." « Here comes a greater man." 

" Mary is tall. Susan is taller." " Here comes the greatest man." 



Q. Is 'perfect' compared? Why? 374. Q. What is the rule for the adjec- 
Q,. Will you name several others that tive? IV. 

are not compared? 374. Q. In the phrase "John is sin- 

Q,. How is the superlative formed in cere;" how do you parse 'John?' 'is?' 

the word 'upper'? 373. 'sincere?' 379. Why is sincere in the 

Q,. What is the effect of ish added to positive degree? 365. Why do you 

adjectives? 375. Give ap exam- call 'is' a neuter verb ? 157. 

P le - . KTLet the pupil next take the ex- 

V*. What is the force of 'very' in ercises that follow and parse as be- 

comparison? 376. fore. 

Q. What are numeral adjectives? 1TXXAT. Q. Is it correct to say 

377. Give an example. Are they " A lesser evil?" Why not? 380. 

compared? 377. Q. Will you correct the following 

Q. Will you spell the comparative inaccuracies in comparison as I read 

and superlative decrees of 'good'? them To you? 

'ill'? 'much'? 'little'? " He is intelligenter." 

Q,. When is an adjective to be con- " She is the most wisest." 

■udereda noun? 378. " A worser evil." 



PRONOUNS, 51 

' ' No composition is perfect." " The first fleet contained five him- 
" Religion mikes its votaries dred men." 
happv." 

ffXXXI. 

380. Double comparatives and superlatives, since they add 
nothing to the sense, should be avoided; as, worser, more wiser , 
&c. also lesser, supremest, most infinite, &c. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you write down two sentences, each containing a different 
adjective in the positive degre§1 Two, with adjectives in the com- 
parative degree] Two, with adjectives in the superlative degree! 

Will you supply such adjectives in the following sentences as will 
make sense] — " A boy studies his lesson." " A boy de- 
serves punishment." " A man helps the man." "Mer- 
chants own ships." "The instructor loves scholars." 

" W T illiam is a scholar, Rufus is a one, but Thomas is the 

one that I ever saw." 

flXXXII. OF PRONOUNS. 

381. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
a disagreeable repetition of the noun. 

382. A personal pronoun is so called, because it invariably 
represents the same person. There are five personal pronouns, 
I, thou, he, she, it. They have person, number and case, 
like nouns; and those of the third person, have gender also. 

383. 7 is the first person, thou the second, he } she or it, the third. 
He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 

3S4. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases, the nominative, the 
possessive and the objective; and two numbers, the singular and plu- 
ral. 

335. 'Mine' and 'thine,' instead of 'my' and c thy, 5 were formerly 

"William is a bad boy, Joseph is called? 382. 
a worser one." Q. How many personal pronouns 

" He gave a more stronger proof are there, and what are they? 382. 
of the fact than the othei." Q. Why is this number said to in- 

" The pleasures of the mind are elude all the pronouns? 134. 
more (1) preferable than those of Q. Which is the first person? 
the body." the second? the third? 383. 

" That table is round, but this is a Q. To which of the pronouns do 
rounder one, and that is the roundest we apply gender? 383. 
of the three." Q,. Why is not gender applied to 

" This is more square." the first and second persons? 136. 

" A more greater concern." Q,. Which is masculine? 383: 

11 The most faiiest of all the daugh- which feminine? 383; which neuter"' 
tersofEve." 383. 

" His mother's extremest joy." Q,. How many cases have pro- 

UXXXII. Q,. What does the word nouns, and what are they? 384. 
'pronoun' signify? 120. How many numbers? 384. 

Q,. What is a pronoun? 381. Q. WiiJ you decline 'I'? 'thou'' 

Q,. Why is a personal pronoun so 'he'? 'she'? 'it'? 127. 

1. For more preferable than, read preferable to* 



52 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



used in the solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning with 
a vowel or silent h; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities." 

flXXXIII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

386. Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding the 
word 'self,' 'in the plural 'selves/ to the simple pronouns, as 
himself y themselves, Sic. 



person. 
First. 



Second. 



Third. 



CASE. 

Kom . 
Poss. 
Obj. 
JVom. 

Poss. 
Obj. 

JYom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

Nam. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

JVom. 

Poss. 

Obj- 



SINGULAR. 

Myself 
Wanting 
MysSf 
Thyself or } 

Yourself < 

Thyself or 

Yourself 

Himself 

Himself 
Herself 



plural. 

Ourselves. 

Ourselves. 
Yourselves. 

Yourselves. 
Themselves. 



Themselves. 
Themselves. 



Herself 
Itself 



Themselves. 
Themselves. 



Themselves. 



Itself 
RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand, in gender, number and person. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" John found his knife. '' 

387. 'John is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third 
person, singular number, and nominative case to 'found,' by Rule VI. 

'Found* is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense: 1. I found, 2. You found, 3. He or 'John 5 found: made in the 
third person singular, and agrees with 'John,' by Rule VII. 

'His' is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular, masculine 
gender, and agrees with 'John/ according to Rule V. in the pos- 
sessive case, and governed by 'knife' by Rule I. 

'Knife 5 is a common noun, of the third person singular, neuter 
o-ender, the objective case and- governed by 'found, according to 
Rule VIII. 



Q. Of what number and person is 
'mine'? 'ours'? 'me'? 'we'? 'they'? 
thine 1 ? *yc;v ? y>'."«' ? 127. 

Q,. Of what gender, number and 
person is *he ? ' 'she'? 'it'? 

Q. Of what number, person and 
case is 'they'? 'ours'? 'his'? 'hers'? 
'mine'? 

Q,. In what style were 'mine' and 
i thine' formerly used'? 385. 

flXXXIII. Q. How are the com- 



pound personal pronouns formed > — 
380. 

Q,. What is the rule for the agree- 
ment of personal pronouns in the 
phrase, " John found his knife" ? V. 

Q,. How do you parse 'John'? 387. 

Q. Will you parse 'John' in the 
phrase, "John found his knife?" 387. 

Q,. Will you parse 'found'? 'his'? 
'knife'? 387. 

O" The learner should next parse 



PRONOUNS. 5S 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
1. 

-James obtained his request. 55 " Ye despise reproof. 55 

« I will assist you. 55 " They menu their pens. 

« He will receive his reward.* 5 " Mary tore her handkerchief. 

« She misused him. 55 "Virtue has its reward. 

« Sin ruins its votaries. 55 " She deceived them. 

2. 

« An indulgent father will re- " John is in distress, and I will 

nrove his son whenfl) he deserves assist him. 55 

prove ms son vneu^ ; „j found Mary and her mother 

1 "A dutiful son gladdens the in trouble, and (2) comforted (3) 
hearts of his parents. 55 them. 55 

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 

O Will you compose two sentences, each having a different per- 
sonal pronoun of the first person! One having a pronoun of the 

r Q P wS? you 1 fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns 
.so as to make sense! "— lost my hat, but found - again. ? £et 
Harriet have — book, for — will need - to get her lesson. 1 he 

travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes. 

Q Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable 
words to make sense! « Intemperance — - evil. > "Washing- 
ton father of his ." " Columbus — America Bos- 
ton inhabitants/' « The ocean is miles wide. 

« — . first man. 55 

flXXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

388 In the sentence, " Both wealth and poverty are temptations; 
that tends to excite pride, this, discontent;'' you perceive that the 
word 'that' represents wealth, and the word 'this, poverty. Ihis 
and 'that' do, therefore, resemble pronouns, and may, for this reason, 
be called pronouns. „ ., 

389 When I say, " This house is mine, that barn is yours the 
words 'this' and 'that' are joined to nouns like adjectives, to define 
or specify them: they may, on this account, be called adjectives 

390 Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble both 
pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are sometimes call- 
ed pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. _ 

391. The adjfxtive pronouns may be divided into three 
sorts, the Distributive, the Demonstrative, and the Indefinite. 

thV^alnln^ exercises in Syntax Q. Will you give an example in 
from the book, and then take the ex- which, these words lesemb e pro 
ircises to be written. nouns? 388. One m which they re- 

IfXXXIV Q.. What are adjective semble adjectives? day. 
onouns? 390 Q- Int0 llow many sorts may 

F Q.° Why are they so called? 388, these pronouns be divided, and what 
«iqq are they? 391. . 

Q. By what other name have Q. What ,s a Distributive pro- 

the se pronouns been c alle d? 390. nou n?_j9g. _, 

~ j Advelb 2. Conjunction. 3. Apply Rule XI. 

E2 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

392. The Distributive are those that relate to persons o? 
things, taken separately and singly. 

393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1) PRONOUNS. 

each, every, either, and sometimes neither. 

394. Each relates to two or more persons or things taken sepa- 
rately; as " Each of his brothers is doing well." 

395. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies 
each one of them taken separately, as " Every man must account for 
himself." 

396. Either relates to two persons or things only, taken sepa- 
rately, and signifies the one or the other; as, " I have not seen ei- 
ther:' Hence to say, " Either of the three," is incorrect. 

397. Neither means not either; that is, not one nor the other; as, 
"Neither of my friends was there." 

398. The 'Demonstrative (2) Pronouns are those which 
precisely point out the things to which they relate. 

399. demonstrative pronouns. 

Sing* Flu. 

This, These, 

That, Those, 

Former, Former, 

Latter, Latter, 

400. 'This' and 'these' refer to the nearest persons or things,— 
'that' and 'those' to the most distant; as, "These gloves are superior 
to those:' " Both wealth and poverty are temptations; that tends to 
excite pride, this, discontent." 

401. The Indefinite are those that refer to things in an 
indefinite or general manner. 

indefinite pronouns. 

402. Some, other, any, one, all, such. Of these pro- 
ncmns, 'one' and 'other' are declined like nouns. 'Another' 
is declined in the singular, but it wants the plural. 



Q. Why is it so called? 393. Q, .Which are they? 399 

Q. Which are they? 393. Q. Which are singular? 399. 

U. What does 'each' refer to? 394. which plural? 399 
Give an example. Q What do 'this' and 'these' refer 

(<l. Wnat does 'every' relate to? to? 400. 

Z °k 9^ eanexam P ,e ' Q" What do 'that' and 'those' refer 

Q,. What does 'either' relate to? to? Give an example, 400 

39 £ ™ e a ? cxam P ,e - Q. What does 'indefinite 1 mean?— 

Q. What does 'neither' mean? 397. 81 

Q. What does 'demonstrative' Q,. What is an indefinite pronoun 5 
mean? 398. 401. r 

Q,. What are demonstrative pro- Q. Which are they? 402 
nouns? 398. 



1. So called from distribute, to divide among several. 

3. So cajled from demonstrate, to prove or show precisely. 



PRONOUNS. 




Sing. 




Plu. 


Other, 




Others, 


Other's, 




Others.' 


Other. 




Others. 


Sing, 




Plu. 


One, 




Ones, 


One's, 




Ones, 5 


One. 




Ones. 


>ook," but 


" These books; 3 ' also, 



55 



403. Norn. 
Poss. 
Obj 

404. Norn. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

We say, " This book, 55 but " These books; 3 ' also, "Oneman,' ; 
" Twenty men:" hence, 

405. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree 
in number with the nouns to which they belong. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, 

" These two books belong to hie. 55 

406. 'These 5 is an adjective pronoun, of the demonstrative kind, 
in the plural number, and belongs to books, according to Note I. 

'Two 5 is a numeral adjective, and belongs to books, by Note I. 
'Books,' 'belong, 5 &c. are parsed as before. 

Exercises in parsing, continued. 
" Every man performs his part in " These men might remain with 

creation. 53 us." 

c< Each man arrived at his station.' 3 " Those men make many preten- 
f * Either party can repair the in- ces to religion. 

jury. 35 " All rational beings desire hap- 

" Some persons cannot acquire piness." 

wealth.' 3 ff By application almost any 

" Many people obtain riches with boy may acquire an honorable 

apparently little exertion.' 3 rank in his class. 5 ' 

" One boy labors for his improve- " Good and virtuous men will 

ment.' 3 sooner (1) or later (1) attain 

" This man neglects his affairs. 5 ' to happiness. 33 

" The old bird feeds her young ones." 

407. 'Ones' is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds, in the com- 
mon gender, third person plural, in the objective case and governed 
by 'feeds' agreeably to Rule VIII. 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
" One boy influences many oth- ly; others spend their time 
ers." in idleness; the former will re 

" None act their part too well." ceive praise, the latter, cen 
" Some scholars study diligent- sure." 

Q,. Will you decline 'other? 403. and parse the remaining exercises 

Q,. Will you decline 'one'? 404. under Note I.? 

Q,. What Note do you apply in Q,. In the phrase " The old bird 

parsing adjective pronouns? Note I. feeds her young ones," will you parse 

Q. In the phrase " These two 'ones'? 407. 

books," &c. will you parse 'these,' Q. Will you correct by Note I. 

'two?' 406. the following examples as I read 

Q. Will you now take the book them to you? 

1. Adverb. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note II. We cannot say " Them run" but " They run;' 5 
hence, when a noun or pronoun is the subject of the verb, it 
should be in the nominative case. 

Note III. It is very common for persons in conversation to 
say " Them books, " Them knives," &c. instead of " Those 
books," " those knives," &c. The incorrectness here alluded 
to consists in substituting a personal in the place of an adjec- 
tive pronoun; hence the pronoun them should not be used in 
the place of these or those. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you compose two sentences each having a different adjec- 
tive pronoun'? One, having a demonstrative pronoun] One, having an 
indefinite pronoun used as a nounl 

Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the fol- 
lowing phrases'? " When Harriet found — book — tore — and then 
flung — away." " — man likes — farm, — merchandise. 5 ' 

Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule II One under 
Rule III Rule 1111 Rule IV! Rule VI Rule VII 



flXXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

408. In the sentence <f That man is happy, who lives virtuously," 
the word 'who' is a pronoun because it stands for a noun, (the noun 
'man,') and it is a relative because it relates or refers to this" noun 
in the same sentence ; hence, 

409. A Relative Pronoun is a word that usually stands for 
some noun before it in the same sentence. 

410. There are three Relative Pronouns: viz. 

411. Who, Which, and That. 

412. Who is used in speaking of persons; as, " The man who 
came." 



" He will not come this twohours." Q,. Will you correct the following 

" I dislike those sort of books." expressions: 

" I have two canes, you may have " Them boys are very idle." 
any of them.' " Bring me them pens." 

Q. Do we say " They run" or " Which of them three things do 
"them run?" Why? Note II. you prefer?" 

Q, Will you now correct by Note 0= The pupil may next take the ex- 
II. the following examples as I read erciscs to be icritlen. 
them to you?" HXXXV. Q,.Int he sentence "That 

"Them will go." man is happy, who lives virtuous- 

" Him and me went to church." ly," what part of speech is 'who'? 

" Art thee well?" Why? 408. What kind? Why? 408. 

" Him who is diligent will im- Q,. What is a relative pronoun? 



prove. 



409. 



Q,. Would you soy "Them knives," Q,. Will you name them? 411. 
or 4 ' These knives"? Why? III. Q,. When do we use 'who?' Grre 

Q. In what does the incorrectness an example. 412. 
consist? III. 



PRONOUNS. 57 

413. Which is used in speaking of animals or things; as, « The bird 
which sings," " The tree which I planted. 

414. Which however is used in speaking of persons when we wish 
to distinguish one of two individuals, or a particular person among 
LanX; as, "Which of the two is heV "Which of them has 

S °415. That is used in speaking either of persons or things. It is 
used in reference to 'who' or 'which' in the following cases. 

416 Lin spewing both of persons and things; as " The man and 
the beast that I saw, perished." , . „ 

2 In speaking of children; as, " The child that I saw. 

3! After the adjective same; as, " He is the same man that we saw 

y l te Aft y er ) the superlative degree; as, "He is the wisest man that 

I ever saw." „„ t . . a . ,, 

5. After the relative who; as, "Who thai ! reflects. 
4 6 We can say " The man who," or " The men who us ng the 
relative who in speaking either of one man or more than one, who 
then is of both numbers and is thus declined: 
Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Who, Who, 

Poss. Whose, Whose, 

Ohi Whom. Whom. , 

417 'Which' and 'that' are of both numbers, but they are not de- 
clined except that 'whose' is sometimes used as the possessive case 
of 'which^as, " Is there any other doclriue whose followers are P un- 

iSh 4 e i8."<Whose' used in the manner last described is made , to repre- 
sent three words; as,"Philosophy whose end," lor "the end of which. 

419. Antecedent signifies going bejore. 

m The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative and to 

which the relative refers, is therefore called the antecedent of the re- 
lative; as, "John, who has gone."-Here, 'John' is the antecedent of 

' W 42°l' When you are told that 'who,' 'which,' and 'that,' are rela- 
tives you sliouW not get the impression that the last two are always 
relatives for 'that' is a relative only when it is used m the sense of 
'who' or''which'; that is, when 'who' or 'which' may b e used in its 

Q. Whendoweuse'whichF'Give 'which' and 'that'? Are they declin- 

"Q la whales do we use'which' \. What exception to this? 417 
i„ speaking of persons? Give an ex- d. When <wW ,. used m the 
rr,nlp 414 possessive case of which, how many 

Q. When may'thaf be used? 415. words does it represent? Give an ex- 
Q. Is it correct to say " the child ample. 418. . _ 

who?*' Why not? " The same man Q. What is the meaning of ante- 
who>" Why not? " The wisest cedent'? 419. 

Q. Will you decline it? 41G. an example. 421. 

Q,. How many numbers have 



5S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

place, without destroying the sense; as " Here is the knife that I 
found," which can be altered to " Here is the knife which I found," 
without injury to the sense. 

422. 'That,' when it points out or specifies some particular per- 
son or thing, is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not used as 
a relative, nor as an adjective pronoun, it is reckoned a conjunction; 
as, " He studies that he may learn." 

423. Hence it appears that the word 'that' may be used sometimes 
as a relative pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and some- 
times as a conjunction. 

424. Since relative pronouns stand for nouns as well as personal 
pronouns, they should therefore agree with nouns in the same par- 
ticulars and by the same rule. Rule V. will therefore apply to 
both. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" That man is happy who lives virtuously.' 3 

425. That 5 is a demonstrative pronoun, of the singular number, 
and belongs to 'man' by Note I. 

'Who 5 is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, third person, 
singular, and agrees with 'man 5 by Rule V. It is in the nominative 
case to 'lives' according to Rule VI. 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
" That man is fortunate who es- " You taught the boy whose hat is 

capes censure." lost." 

" The girl whom I saw, perished." " That house which stands on the 
" I met the same man in the mar- hill once(l) belonged to me." 
ket to-day(l) that I met yes- "The boy whom I instruct learns 
terday in the street." well. 5 ' 

" You who came first should re- 
tire first." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
" The man which I saw." 

426. Incorrect; because in speaking of persons, 'who, 5 'whose,' or 
whom, 5 is generally to be used — it should therefore read " The man 
whom I saw." 

Sentences to be parsed and corrected, continued. 
" The bird whom I killed had " Thou who are in prosperity 

made her nest." must assist me in adversity." 

*' The man which visited me is " He which shuns vice does gen- 

since dead." erally practice virtue. 35 

Q,. When is 'that' an adjective pro- happy who lives virtuously," Will 
noun? Give an example. 422. you parse 'who'? 425. 

Q,. When a conjunction? Give an Q. Will you now take the book 
example. 422. and parse the remaining exercises? 

Q,. How many different parts of Q.. Instead of saying "The man 
speech may 'that' represent? 423. which I saw," what should I say? 

Q,. What is the rule for the agree- Why? 42G. 
ment of relative pronouns? 424. Q. Will you correct and parse the 

Q,. Will you parse 'that' in the remaining exercises, and then take 
phrase " That man?" 425. the exercises to be written? 

Q,. In the sentence " That man is 

1. Adverb. 



PRONOUNS. 59 

" That man is happy whom is " I, who lives by your charity, 
virtuous." should be grateful." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative 'who'1 
one containing 'which'? one containing 'that"! 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correct- 
ly used! " The man sins shall die." " The boy studies 

will learn." "The bird sung so sweetly has flown." Will 

you fill up the following with one or more words that will make sensel 
"Intemperance — —evils." " If truth sorry." 

Q. Will you embrace in different sentences, each of the following 
words'? 'Washington'/ 'Columbus', c Capt. Cook', 'Indians', 'Wis- 
dom' ' Riches' 'James Monroe'. 



tfXXXVI. OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, 

427. " I took what you gave me," 

" I took that which you gave me." 

" I took the thing which you gave me." 

" I took these things which you gave me." 

428. By examining the foregoing sentences, you will see the word 
'what' in the first example, means the same as the words in italics in 
the successive ones: the word 'what' then is clearly a pronoun, and 
because it stands for more than one word, it is called a compound 
pronoun. The word before the relative 'which', in the phrase " that 
which," or the thing which," is the antecedent of 'which' Hence, 

429. What is a compound relative pronoun, including both 
the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that 
which. 

430. 'Who,' 'which,' and 'what' have sometimes the words 
'ever' or 'soever' annexed(l) to them: and each combination of 
this sort is called a compound relative; as whoever, whosoever, which- 
ever, whichsoever, &c. They are not often used. 

431. 'Who,' 'which,' and 'what,' are called interrogatives, or rela- 
tives of the interrogative kind, when they are used in asking ques- 
tions; as, " Who is he!" " Which is the book!" " What are you do- 
ing?" These relatives, you perceive, have no antecedents but relate 
to some word or phrase contained in the answer which is called a 
subsequent because it follows after the relative; as, " Whom did you 



1TXXXVI. Will you repeat those Q,. Will you give three examples 
sentences which mean the same as"I of compound pronouns formed by 
took what you gave me?" 4'^7. annexing 'ever' or 'soever'? 430, 

Q,. What words then does 'what' Q,. What is the meaning of annex- 
stand for? 428. ed?430. 

Q. Why is 'what' a pronoun? 428. Q,. When are 'who,' 'which,' and 

Q. Why a compound pronoun? 428. 'what' called interrogatives? 431. 

Q,. How mav 'what' be described * 
429. 



* Thus, " Washington was a true patriot," &e. The pupil may write several 
sentences on each word. 
1. Placed after. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

seel" Ans. John. Here, c John 5 is the subsequent to which 'whom/ 

432. Hence it follows that antecedent and subsequent are opposed 
to each other in meaning; the former signifying going before, the lat- 
ter following after. 

433. 'Whether' was formerly made use of to express interrogation; 
as, " Whether of these shall I choosel" but it is now seldom used, 
the interrogative 'which' supplying its place. 

434. ' Which,' c what,' and as we have already seen ' that, when 
joined to nouns, are adjective pronouns; as " unto which promise our 
twelve tribes." . 

435. When c what' and f which' are joined to nouns in asking ques- 
tions they are called interrogative adjective pronouns; as, " Which 
horse did he take!" . 

438. In some instances we find * what' used in the sense of an in- 
terjection; as, " What ! take my money and then ir-y life!" 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" I will leave what is useless." 

437. c What,' in the example above, means the same as " that 
which;" or " the thing which"; we will therefore in parsing it bear in 
mind that it has the government and agreement of two separate words. 
We will first parse it as standing for « thing' and secondly for ' which.' 

' What' is a compound relative pronoun, and is equivalent to " that 
which," or " the thing which." In representing f thing' it may be 
considered a pronoun of the third person singular, neuter gender, in 
the objective case and governed by 'leave' according to Rule VIII. 

< What,' in representing ' which,' may be considered a relative 
pronoun of the third person singular, neuter gender, and relates to 
'thing* for its antecedent according to Rule V. and in the nomina- 
tive case to ' is' by Rule VI. 

c Is' is a neuter verb in the indicative mood, present tense, 1. I 
am, 2. You are, 3. He or ' which' is, made in the third person 
singular, and agrees with c which' the relative part of the pronoun 
'what,' according to Rule VII. 

1 Useless' is an adjective m the positive degree, and belongs to 
« what' by Rule IV. 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
" James will do what is proper." " William demands what I cannot ] 
" You heard what I said." give." 

4( Whatever improves delights " They advocate what is excel- 

him." lent." 

flXXXVII. OF THE VERB. 

438. A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 
Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. 



Q, What are the nouns called to Q,. Why so called? 431. 
which interrogative refer? 431. Q. In the phrase " Whom did yon 

Q. What is the meaning of ' sub- see?" Ms. 'John ; which word if 
sequent'? 432. the subsequent? 431. 



VERBS. 61 

439. An active verb expresses action and the. actor is always 
the nominative case; as, u John runs." Active verbs are either 
transitive or intransitive. 

440. An active verb is transitive when it either has or may have an 
object after it, on which the action terminates ; as, " John beats 
William." 

441. An active verb is intransitive when it neither has nor can 
have an object after it. 

44*2. Passive means suffering or receiving. 

443. When I say " John is beaten by William, 5 ' c is beaten 5 is a 
verb because it expresses action, and it is a passive verb because it 
expresses the action received by John; and if John receives the ac- 
tion, then he is the object of it; hence, 

444. A passive verb expresses action or effect received. 

445. The object is always its subject or nominative case. 

446. Active nominative or actor, iC John strikes William." 

447. Passive nominative or object, "William is struck by John. 55 

448. By examining the foregoing examples, you will see that when 
the verb is active, its nominative is likewise active; and when the 
verb is passive, its nominative is likewise passive. 

449. The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on oc- 
casions when we wish to state what has been done, without exposing 
the author: thus, instead of saying "William struck John,"' I can, to 
avoid alluding to William, say, c 'John was struck. 5 ' 

450. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor passive, 
expressing simply either being or existence in a certain state; 
as, " He sits" " He is at home." 

Q. When are 'what,' 'which,' and Q,. What is a verb? 438. 
1 that' adjective pronouns? Give an Q,. What is an active verb? 439. 
example. 434. Q. What is always its nominative? 

Q,. Which of the relatives are some- Give an example. 439. 
times interrogative adjective pro- Q,. What is the meaning of ' tran- 
nouns? When? 435. sitive?t of ' intransitive'^? 

Q,. When I say, " What ! rob me Q, How may active verbs be di- 
of my money and then take my life"? vided? 439. 
in what sense is ; what' used? 436. Q.. When is an active verb transi- 

Q. In the sentence, " 1 will leave tive ? Give an example. 440. 
what is useless,' how do you parse Q,. When is an active verb intran- 
4 what'? ' is'? ' uselessV 437. sitive? Give an example. 441. 

Q,, What does ' what' stand for? Q,. What is the meaning of ' pas- 
437. sive'? 442. 

Q,. Do you parse it as one word or Q. In the example u John is beaten 
two? What two? 437. by William," which is the verb? 

3 The pupil may now parse the Why? What kind? Why? 443. 
remaining exercises on the pronoun Q,. W 7 hich word is the object? Why? 
* what: ' 443. 

TTXXXVII. Qr What is the mean- Q,. What then is a passive verb? 
ing of* verb'?* 444. 

Q,. Why so called? 143. Q,. Which is the nominative to a 

♦See question to 142. % See question to 152. 
t See question to 150. 



C2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

TTXXXVIII. MOOD OR MODE. 

451. Mood or Mode is the manner of representing action or 
being. 

452. The Indicative Mood is used simply for indicating or 
declaring a thing, or asking a question; as ; " I walk/' " Do I 
walk?" 

453. The Potential Mood is used for expressing possibility, 
liberty, power, will, or obligation, either with or without asking 
a question; as, "I may go," u May I go?" "He must 
read/' &x. 

454. Of the Subjunctive Mood. The term subjunctive sig- 
nifies subjoined or added to. 

455. When I say, " I will go if he desire it," the phrase f if he de- 
sire it' is added on to the one before it; hence we say, "if he desire 
it" is in the subjunctive mood. The term, however, is limited to 
such sentences as are preceded by the conjunctions if } unless, al- 
though, except, lest, &c. which imply doubt or some uncertainty. 

456. The Subjunctive Mood is used for expressing doubt or 
uncertainty. 

457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two dif- 
ferent forms. It is equally correct to say, " If he is happy then I am 
contented, 5 ' and " If he be happy then I shall be contented/ 1 The 
verbs 'be' and f is' are both in the present tense, and since each has 
the conjunction if before it, each is in the subjunctive mood. 

458. The phrase "If he be happy," means the same as " If he 
mil be happy;" it therefore plairdy implies future time. 

passive verb, the agent or the object? Q,. What is the meaning of 'poten- 

445. tial'? 212. 

Q,. Is the nominative to an active Q,. What is the potential mood 

verb active or passive? Give an ex- used for? Give an example. 453. 

ample. 448. Q,. What is the meaning of 'sub- 

Q,. Is the nominative to a passive junctive'? 454. 

verb active or passive? Give an ex- Q,. In what mood is " If he desire 

ample. 448. it?" 455. 

Q,. In what particular is the pas- Q. How is the term 'subjunctive' 

sive voice a convenient form of ex- limited? 455. 

pression? Give an example. 449. Q,. What is the subjunctive mood 

Q. What is the meaning of *neu- used for? 456. 

ter'?* d. How many different forms has 

Q. What is a neuter verb? Give it? 457. Give an example of each, 

an example. 450. 457. 

Q,. How many kinds of verbs are Q,. In what tense are the verbs 'be' 

there, and what are they? 438. and 'is'? 457. 

HXXXVIII. Q,. What is the Q,. In what mood is each with the 

meaning of 'mood'? 166. conjunction 'if before it? 457. 

Q,. What is 'mood'? 451. Q,. What does " If he be happy" 

Q,. What is the meaning of 'in- mean, as it respects time? 458. 

dicative'? 168. Q,. What tense, then, is leferred 

Q. What is the indicative mood to? 45b. 
used for? Give an example. 452. 

*Se3 question to 157. 



MOOD. 63 

459. On the contrary, in the phrase " If he is happy," the sense 
plainly is, " If he is now, at the present time, happy, 5 ' without any 
reference to future time. 

460. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, doubt only is 
implied; and in the other, both doubt and future time. 

461. The verb 'is' corresponds with the common form of the verb 
Ho be,' in the indicative mood, present tense; as, I am, you are, he is: 
we will, therefore, when the verb is varied as usual, call it the com- 
mon form of the subjunctive mood; and when the verb is not varied 
in the different persons, we will call it the subjunctive form, since 
this form is peculiar to this mood. You should here be informed that 
this distinction relates only to the present tense, it being customary 
to vary the terminations of the verb in the remaining tenses, as usual. 

462. The following general rules will direct you in the proper use 
of the subjunctive mood : 

463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has a 
reference to future time, we should use the 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

Present Tense. 
464. Singular. Plural. 

1 If I love, 1 If we love, 

2 If thou or you love, 2 If ye or you love, 

3 If lie love. 3 If they love. 

465. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has no 
reference to future time, we should use the 



Singular. 

1 If I love, 

2 If thou lovest, or ) 


COMMON 


FORM. 

Plural. 

1 If we love, 

2 If ye love, or ) 


If you love, ^ 
3 If lie loves. 




If you love, £ 
3 If they love. 



466. Other conjunctions, besides 'if, 5 are used before the subjunc- 
tive mood. £ If is perhaps used most frequently, because it implies 
doubt more strongly than most others. 

467. By the foregoing, you may perceive that when the verb is in 
the subjunctive form, some auxiliary verb is always understood; as, 
tf He will not be pardoned unless he repent;" that is, " unless he 

Q,. What does u If he is happy" Q,. How are the remaining tenses 

mean, in lespect to time? 459. varied? 461. 

Q,. What idea, then, is implied in Q, When do we use the subjune- 

the one form? 460. tive form? 463. 

Q,. What two ideas in the other Q, Will you conjugate the verb 

form? 460. 'love' in this form, in the present 

Q,. Willi what does the verb 'is' tense? 464. 

coirespond? 461. Q,. When do we use the common 

Q. How is the verb varied in the form? 465. 

common form of the subjunctive Q. Why is the conjunction 'if* 

mood? 461. used most frequently in the subjunc- 

Q,. Why called common? How tive mood? 466. 

varied in the subjunctive form? Why Q. What does " He will not be 

called subjunctive? 461. pardoned unless he repent," mean? 

Q,. How is this distinction limited? 467, 
4CL 



C4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

will repent. ci If thou ever return, thou shouldst be thankful/' that 
is, " if thou shouldst ever return." 

468. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunc- 
tive, common form, simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, 
before it; as, <f I walk," the indicative mood becomes subjunctive by 
prefixing ( ii 5 ; thus, "If I walk." 

469. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be changed to the 
subjunctive; as, " I can go" is the potential, "If I can go," the sub- 
junctive. 

470. Of the Imperative Mood. When I say, "John, mind your 
book," I command John to do something; and because imperative 
means commanding, we say that c mind, 5 in the phrase above, is in the 
imperative mood. 

471. This mood, for reasons assigned before, (214) embraces the 
following particulars: 

1. Command: as, Cf John, sit up." 

2. Entreaty: as, i( Do visit me." 

3. Exhorting: as, i( Remember my counsel." 

4. Permitting: as, Cf Go in peace." 

472. The Imperative Mood, then, is used for commanding, 
entreating, exhorting, or permitting. 

473. The application of this mood is limited to the second person; 
as, "John, come to me; 5 ' because, in uttering a command, making 
an entreaty, &c. we must necessarily address some one; hence you 
can see the reason why this mood has but one person, viz. the second. 

474. We cannot with any propriety command a person to-day, 
or in present time, to do any thing in past time, yesterday for in- 
stance; consequently a verb in this mood cannot have any past tense. 

475. When I command a person to do any thing, the performance 
of the command must take place in a period of time subsequent to 
that of the command; that is, in future time; but the command itself 
must, from the very nature of the case, take place in present time: 
this mood, thereiore, cannot, strictly speaking, have any future tense: 
hence, 

Q. What, then, is understood? 467. mood embrace? 471. Why so many-' 

Gt " If thou ever return, thou 214. 
shouldst be thankful;" what does Q,. What, then, is the imperative 

this mean? 467, mood used for? 472. Give an ex- 

Q. What, then, is understood? 467. ample of -commanding'? one of 'en- 

Q,. What is always understood in treating'? one of k exhorting 1 ? one of 

this form? 467. 'permitting'? 471. 

Q,. How may a verb in the indica- Q. How many persons has this 

tive mood be converted into the sub- mood? 473. 
junctive? 468. Q. What person is it? 473. 

Q,. How can the potential be Q,. Has this mood any past tense? 

changed to the subjunctive? Give Why? 474. 
an example. 469. Q.. When I' command a person, 

Q,. In what mood is " John, mind when, if at all, must the performance 

jour studies." Why? 470. of the command take place? 475. 

Q,. What is the meaning of 'im- Q. When or in what time must 

perative? 470. the command itself be given? 475. 

Q,. How many particulars does this 



MOODS. TENSES. 65 

476. A verb, in the imperative mood, must be in the present tense, 
and in the second person. 

477. Of the Infinitive Mood. In the phrases, "John begins to 
sin^,'* " The boys begin to sing/ 5 "Thou beginnest to sing," you 
perceive that the verb f to sing' is not varied to correspond with the 
number and person of its different agents, 'John,' 'the boys,' and 
f thou:' hence f to sing' is said not to be limited, either by person or 
number. 

478. This mood, then, is properly denominated 'Infinitive 9 , signi- 
fying not limited : hence, 

479. The Infinitive mood is used to express an action/ not 
limited either by person or number. 

480. { To,' the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood; 
as, " Let me go," instead of "Let me to go;" " I heard him say it," 
for "I heard him to say it." This little word 'to,' when used before 
verbs in this manner, is not a preposition, but forms a part of the 
verb, and, in parsing, should be so considered. 

481. From the foregoing it appears, that there are five moods, the 
Indicative, the Imperative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the 
Infinitive. 

flXXXIX. OF TENSE. 

482. The Present Tense expresses what is now taking place; 
as, Ci John swims." 

483. This tense is often employed to express the actions of per- 
sons long since dead; as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well." 

484. The present tense, preceded by the words when, before, after, 
as soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a 
future action; as, " When he arrives he will hear the news." 

485. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and things, which 
are in their nature unchangable; as, " Truth is eternal," "William 
boldly asserted there was no God;" properly, tc is no God." 

486. In animated (1) historical narrations, (2) this tense is some- 
times used tor the imperfect; as, " He enters the territory of the 

Q,. Has this mood, then, any fu- Q,. Plow is the sign 'to' to be 

lure tense? 475. parsed? 480. 

Q,. How many tenses, then, has it? Q,, Why parsed with the verb? 480. 

How many persons? 476. Q. How many moods are there, 

Q. What is the meaning of 'inim- and what are they? 481. 

itive'? 478. # Tf XXXIX. Q,. What is the mean- 

Q. In what mood is 'sing' in the in# of 'present'? 173. 

phrases, "John begins to sing," Q,. What does the present tense 

"The boys begin to sing," " Thou express? 482. Give an example, 

beginnest to sing?" 477. 478. 482. 

Q,. In what particulars is this Q,. " Seneca reasons well." What 

word reckoned not to be limited? 477. tense is employed here? Why? 483. 

Q,. What, then, is the infinitive Q. In the phrase " When he ar- 

mood used for? 479. rives," future time is alluded to: 

Q,. What is the usual sign of this why, then, is the present employed^ 

mood? 480. 484. 

Q,. Is it always expressed? Give Q, Do we say, " There is," ©r 

an example? 480. "there was no God"? Why? 485. 

1. Lively. SlTDescriptioas, or telling what has been done. 

F2 



06 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

peaceable inhabitants; he fights and conquers, takes an immense 
booty, which he divides among his soldiers, and returns home to en- 
joy an empty triumph." 

487. The Imperfect Tense expresses what took place in 
time past, however distant; as. u John died." 

438. The Perfect Tense expresses what has taken place, 
and conveys an allusion to the present time; as, " I have fin- 
ished my letter." 

4S9. When any particular period of past time is specified or al- 
luded to, we use the imperfect tense; as, <c John wrote yesterday;' 
but when no particular past time is specified, we use the perfect 
tense; as, " I have read Virgil many times." 

490. The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a 
thing that is past; but the former denotes it in such a manner that 
there is still actually remaining some part of the time to slide away, 
wherein we declare the thing has been done; whereas the imperfect 
denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, that nothing re- 
mains of that time in which it was done. If we speak of the present 
century, we say, " Philosophers have made great discoveries in the 
present century;'" but if we speak of the last century, we say, " Phi- 
losophers made great discoveries in the last century. 5 ' iC He has been 
much afflicted this year;' 5 <C I have this week read the king's procla- 
mation;" Cf I have heard great news this morning:'' in these in- 
stances, <c He has been," et I have read" and lc heard," denote things 
that are past; but they occurred in this year, in this week, and to- 
day; and still there remains a part of this year, week and day, where- 
of I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is 
connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either of 

Q,. What is the meaning of 'ani- Q, What do both the perfect and 

mated"? 486. imperfect denote? 490. 

Q,. Meaning of 'narrations? 436 Q,. How does the former denote 

Ct. u lie enters the territory," &c it ? 490. 

why is the present tense used? 4.^6. Q,. How does the latter? 490. 

Q,. What is the meaning of 'im- Q,. Do we say " Philosophers 
perfect'? 181. made," or " have made great discov- 
er How came this term to he eries in the present century"? Why? 
used, to denote an action past and 490. 

finished?* Q. Which tense do we use in 
Q,. What does the imperfect tense speaking of the last century? 490, 
express? 437. Give an example. Give an example. 490. 
437. Q. " I have this week read the 
Q. Meaning of { perfect'?t king's proclamation," " I have heard 
Q,. What does the perfect tense great news this morning. '* Which 
express? Give an example. 490. are the verbs used in these two seri- 
es. " John wrote his letter '" What tences? 490. 
tense is the verb in here? 489. Q,. What do they denote? When 
Q,. Why is this tense used? 439. did these things occur? 490. 
Q,. l< I have read Virgil many Q, To what may the perfect tense 
times." Why is the perfect tense in general be applied ? \V T hat ex- 
used herd 489. ception is mentioned? 490. 



*See question to 182. finished, r complete. 



TENSES. PARTICIPLES. 67 

the author or of the work, though it may have been performed many 
centuries ago ; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, 
it cannot be used. We may say, " Cicero has written orations; J but 
we cannot say, " Cicero has icriUen poems/' because the orations 
are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking of priests in general, 
we may say, " They have in all ages claimed great powers; 5 * because 
the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if we speak of the 
Druids, as any particular order of priests, which does not now exist, 
we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid priests have 
claimed great powers;" but must say, " The Druid priests claimed 
great powers;'' because that order is now totally extinct. 

491. The Pluperfect Tense expresses what had taken place, 
at some past time mentioned; as, "I had finished my letter be- 
fore my father returned." 

492. The First Future Tense expresses what will take place; 
as, " John will come." 

493. The Second Future expresses what will have taken 
place, at or before some future time mentioned; as, " I shall 
have finished my business before the steam-boat starts." 

494. There are six tenses, namely — the Present, the Imperfect, 
the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Futures. 

flXL. OF PARTICIPLES. 

495. In the phrase " I found a man laboring in the field/' the word 
'laboring' shows what the man w r as doing, and therefore resembles a 
verb. When I say, " The laboring man should not be wronged," 
'laboring' is joined to the noun 'man,' to describe it, and, therefore, 
resembles an adjective. 

493. The word 'laboring,' then, partakes of the nature of two dif- 
ferent parts of speech, and since participle signifies partaking of, 
we will call such words as 'laboring,' participles. 

Q,. Do we say ''Cicero loroie" Q. How many tenses are therein 

or " has written orations?- 1 ' " Cicero all and what are they? 494. 

wrote" or "has written poems?" Q,. In what mood is ;i He runs"? 

Why? 490. Why? 452. " Does he run ?" Why? 

Q, In speaking of priests, in gen- 452. " 1 may run"? Why? 453. 

eral, why do we say, "They have in " Should I have studied?" Why? 

all ages claimed great powers." 490. 453. " If he accept"? Why? 456. "If 

Q. Can we say "The Druid priests he accepts"? Why? 456. " To sing"? 

have claimed great powers"? What Why? 479. 

should we say? Why p 490. Q,. In what tense is " He sings?" 

Q. What is the meaning of 'plu- Why? 482. " Did he sing"? Why? 

perfect'? 186. 487. " He has read"? 488. Why? 

Q. What does the pluperfect tense "Had he written"? 491. Why? 

express? 491. Give an example. 491. " Shall lie go"? 492 " I shall have 

Q. Meaning of 'future'? 177. gone"? Why ? 493. 

Q. What does the first future ex- TfXL. Q,. What parts of speech 

press > Give an example. 492. Why does 'laboring' resemble? Give an 

called first future?* example. 495 

Q What does the second future Q. What is the meaning of 'part- 
express? Give an example. 493. iciple'? 496. 



* See question to 191. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

497. All participles are derived from verbs; thus, from 'labor 
comes 'laboring;' from 'beat/ 'beating;' 'rejoice/ 'rejoicing/ &c: 
hence, 

498. The Participle is a word derived from a verb, and par- 
takes of the nature of a verb and adjective. 

499. When I say " John is writing, 3 ' the participle 'writing' shows 
what John is now doing, but has not finished : 'writing,' then, may 
be called a present participle : hence, 

500. The Present Participle expresses what is now taking place, 
but not finished. This participle always ends in ing; as, sinning, 
fighting, weeping, loving, &x. There are many words of this termi- 
nation, which are not participles; as morning, evening, which are 
nouns ; uninteresting, unsatisfactory, which are adjectives, The 
fact that these cannot be formed from verbs will furnish you with a 
certain rule for distinguishing the participle from all other words of 
the same termination; as, for instance, uninteresting we know is not 
a participle, because there is no such verb as uninterest, from which 
to form it. 

501. "The letter is written." Here the participle 'written shews 
that the act of writing is past and finished; it may then be called a 
perfect participle; hence, 

502. The Perfect Participle expresses what is past and finished. 
This participle may always be distinguished by its making sense with 
having; thus, "having written/' " having sung," &c. Here 'written' 
and 'sung" are perfect participles. 

508. " John, having written his letter, sealed it." Here you doubt- 
less perceive that the act of writing took place before that of sealing; 
also, that the participle is composed of two words 'having' and 'writ- 
ten 5 ; it may then be called a compound participle, and because it de- 
notes also an action past and finished, it may very properly be called 
a compound perfect Participle; hence, 

Q,. From what are all participles here? What then may it be called: 

derived? 497. Give an example. 497. 501. 

Q,. What is a participle? 498. Q. What is a perfect participle ? 

Q. When I say " John is wri- 502. 
ting" what does 'writing' show? Q,. How may this participle al- 

499. ways be known ? Give an example. 

Q,. What then may it be called? 502. 

499. Q. " Having written," " having 
Q,. What then is a present partici- sung," which are the perfect partici- 
ple? 500. pies here? 502. 

Q- What does this participle al- Q. "John having written his let- 
ways end in ? 500. Give an exam- ter, sealed it." Which took place 
pie. 500. first the writing or sealing? 503. 

Q,. Are all words ending in mg Q,. Of what Is this participle com- 

participles? Give an example of posed? 503. 

nouns of this termination? of adjec- Q,. What then may it be called ? 

tives? 500. 503. 

Q,. How then can the participle Q,. What does " having written" 

be distinguished? Give an example, denote in reference to time and ac* 

500. tion? 503. 

Q,. " The letter is written." What Q,. What may it thence be called? 
does the participle 'written' show 503. 



VERBS. 69 

504. The Compound Perfect Participle expresses what took place 
before something else mentioned. This participle is formed by plac- 
ing the present participle, 'having 5 , before the perfect participle of 
any verb; as, having fought, having ciphered. 



1FXLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 

505. 'Struck 5 is a perfect participle, from the verb 'strike 5 , and 
this you know because it makes sense joined with 'having 5 ; as, hav- 
ing struck. 

506. 'Is, 5 you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb 'tobe ? ; 
as, I am, You are, He is; now by joining 'is' with 'struck 5 , we can 
form the passive verb "is struck;' 5 "John strikes Joseph, 55 is active: 
but " Joseph is struck by John, 55 is passive. 

507. In these two examples you perceive that the sense of each is 
the same; hence by means of the passive verb we are enabled to ex- 
press in a different form, the precise meaning of the active, which, 
you will oftentimes find, contributes not a little, to the variety and 
harmony of the language. 

508. By examining the conjugation of the verb to be, you will dis- 
cover that it has, in all, ten variations; viz. am, art, is, are, was, wast, 
were, been, be, and being. Every passive verb must be composed of 
one of these ten variations, and the perfect participle of any active- 
transitive verb. Thus, taking 'was 5 , and joining it with the perfect 
participle of the verb 'beat 5 , namely, 'beaten' we form the passive 
verb "was beaten,' 5 to which prefixing an object, or nominative case, 
we have the phrase " William was beaten." 

509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered that the passive verb al- 
ways retains the same mood, tense, number, and person, that the verb 
to be has, before it is incorporated with the participle; thus, " He has 
been, 55 is the indicative perfect, third person singular; then, " He has 
been rejected, 5 ' is likewise the indicative perfect, third person singu- 
lar passive. It cannot therefore be difficult to tell the mood, tense, 
number, and person of any passive verb, if you are familiar with the 
conjugation of the verb to be. 

Q,. What does a compound perfect Q,. Will you form a passive verb 

participle express? 504. with 'is' and -struck'? 506. 

Q,. How is this participle formed? Q,. "John strikes Joseph." How 

504. Give an example. 504. may the sense of this sentence be 

HXLI. Q,. 'Striking', 'struck', expressed by a passive verb.' 506. 

" having struck." Here are three Q,. What advantage does the use 

different participles, can you tell of the passive verb often afford us? 

which is the present? Why? 500. — 507. 

Perfect? Why? 502. Compound Q,. To what does it contribute! 

perfect? Why? 503. 507. 

Q,. What kind of a participle is Q,. How many variations has the 

'struck'? 505. How do you know verb to be in all? 508. What aro 

this? 505. they? 508. 

Q,. Of what verb is the veib 'is' a Q,. What will always compose one 

variation? 506. part of a passive verb? 508. What 

the other part? 508. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

510. From the foregoing particulars we derive the following gen- 
eral rule. 

All Passive verbs are iormed by adding the perfect partici- 
ple of any active-transitive verb, to the neuter verb to be. 

1TXLII. OF THE AUXILIARY VERB. 

oil. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the prin- 
cipal verbs are conjugated. 

512. The auxiliary verbs are may, can, must, might, could, 
would, should, and shall. The following are sometimes auxilia- 
ries and sometimes principal verbs: do, be, have, and will. 

513. When in the formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, 
that tense is called a compound one, and the tense formed by the 
principal verb alone is called a simple tense. 

ffXLIIl. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 

514. The Indicative Mood may be known by the sense, or by its 
having no sign except in asking a question; as, " Who comes herel" 

515. The Potential Mood has for its signs the auxiliaries may, 
can, must, could, would, and should; " I could love," &c. 

516. The Subjunctive Mood has usually for its signs the conjunc- 
tions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest; as, " Unless he re- 
pent," &c. 

517. The Infinitive Mood has usually for its sign the word ( to'; as, 
"To sing." 

518. The Imperative Mood may be distinguished by its always be- 
ing in the second person, and by its agreement with thou, or ye or 
you; as, " Depart thou," &c. 

TiXLlV. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 

519. The Present Tense has for its sign the first form of the verb; 
as, weep, remain, &c. excepting the occasional use of do; as, " I do 
learn." 

Q. What fact is mentioned as the Indicative mood? 514. Give an 

worthy of notice? 509. example. 514. 

Q,. What mood, tense, number,and Q,. What is the sign of the Poten- 

person, is " He has been"? 509. Is tial mood? 515. Give an example. 

" He has been rejected"? 509. 515. 

Q,. What will make the mood, Q. What is the sign of tiic Sub- 
tense, &c. of passive verbs familiar? junctive mood? 51G. Give an ex- 
509. ample. 516. 

Q,. How are all passive verbs Q,. What is the sign of the Infini- 

formed? 510. tive Mood? 517. Give an example. 

1TXLII. Q,. What is the meaning 517. 
of auxiliary? 19G. Q,. What is tbe sign of the imper- 
ii. What are auxiliary verbs? 511. ative? 518. Give an example. 518. 
Q,. Will you name them? 512. HXLIV. What is the sign of the 
Q,. What verbs are used both as Present indicative? 519. Give an ex- 
auxiliary and principal vetbs? 512. ample. 519. 
UXLIII. Q,. What is the sign of 



VERBS. 71 

520. The Imperfect Tense has no auxiliary for a sign, except did, 
which is sometimes used. If however the verb is not in the Present 
tense and has no Auxiliary, it follows that it is in the Imperfect; as, 
"I fought." 

521. The Perfect Tense has for its sign the word have; as, " have 
loved." 

522. The Pluperfect has for its sign had; as, Cf had loved." 

523. The First Future has for its sign shall or will; as, " shall or 
will love." 

524. The Second Future has for its sign shall have or will have; 
as, "shall have loved," or " will have loved." 

625. The Indicative Mood has six tenses. 

526. The Subjunctive Mood has six tenses. 

527. The Potential Mood has four tenses. 

528. The Infinitive Mood has four tenses. 

529. The Imperative Mood kas one tense. 



ffXLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

530. When 1 ask you to raise your voice, in reading, you readily 
understand what I mean by ' voice'; but in Grammar its application 
is somewhat peculiar: grammatically considered it refers to the ac- 
tive and passive nature of verbs. 

531. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods and tenses. 

532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the active voice, 
and that of a passive verb the passive voice. 

533. Verbs are called Regular, when they form their Imperfect 
tense of the Indicative Mood, and their Perfect participle by the ad- 
dition of ed to the verb in the Present tense, or d only when the verb 
ends in e; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I favor, I favored, Favored. 

I love, I loved, Loved. 

534. When a verb does not form its Imperfect tense and Perfect 
participle in this manner, it is called an Irregular verb; as, 



Q.Sign of the Imperfect? 520. Q,. How many the Potential? 527. 
Give an example. 520. Q. How many the Infinitive? 528. 

Q,. Sign of the Perfect? 521. Q. How many the Imperative? 

Give an example. 521. 529. 

Q. Sign of the Pluperfect? 522. TTXLV. Q. What does 'voice' 

Give an example. 522. mean in grammar? 530. 

Q,. Sign of ihe First Future? 523. Q. Meaning of 'Conjugation? 

Give an example. 523. 217. 

Q,. Sign of the Second Future? 524. Q,. What is the conjugation ef 

Give an example. 524. an active verb styled? 532. 

Q. How many tenses has the In- Q,. What the conjugation of a pas- 

dicative Mood? 525. sive verb? 532. 

Q,. How many the Subjunctive? Q,. When are verbs called Rpsb- 

526. lar? 533. Give an example. 533" 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Pros. Tense, Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I am, I was, Been. 

535. The Regular verb 'Love' and the Irregular verb 'To be' are 
conjugated as follows: 

CONJUGATION. 

TO LOVE and TO BE. 

&cttbc anti JJassfbe Voice contrasted. 



Actite Voice. 
Singular. 

1 Pcrs. I love, 

2 Pers. You love, 

3 Pers. He loves. 

Plural. 

1 Pcrs. We love, 

2 Pcrs. Ye or you love 

3 Pers. They love. 



Singular. 

1 I loved, 

2 You loved, 

3 He loved. 

Plural. 

1 We loved, 

2 Ye or you loved, 

3 They loved. 

Singular. 
\ I have loved, 

2 You have loved, 

3 He has loved. 

Plural. 

1 We have loved, 

2 Ye or you have loved, 

3 They have loved. 



Singular. 

1 I had loved, 

2 You had loved, 

3 He had loved. 

Plural. 

1 We had loved, 

2 Ye or you had loved, 

3 They had loved. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Passive Voice. 
Singular. 

1 Pcrs. I am loved, 1 

2 Pers. You are loved, 2 

3 Pcrs. He is loved. 3 
Plural. 

1 Pers. We are loved. 1 

2 Pers. Ye or you are 2 
loved, 3 

3 Pers. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1 1 was loved, 1 

2 You were loved, 2 

3 He was loved. 3 
Plural. 

1 We weie loved, 1 

2 Ye or you were loved, 2 

3 They were loved. 3 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1 I have been loved, 1 

2 You have been loved. 2 

3 He has been loved. 3 
Plural. 

1 We have been loved, 1 
2. Ye or you have been 2 
loved, 3 

3 They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense* 

Singular. 

1 I had been loved, 1 

2 You had been loved, 2 

3 He had been loved. 3 
Plural. 

1 We had been loved, 1 

2 Ye or you had been 2 
loved, 3 

3 They had been lov- 
ed. 



Neuter. 
Singular. 

Pcrs. I am, 
Pers. You are, 
Pers. He is. 
Plural. 
Pers. We arc, 
Pers. Ye or you are, 
Pers. They are. 



Singular. 
I was, 
You were, 
He was. 

Plural. 
We were, 
Ye or you were, 
They were. 

Singular. 
I have been, 
You have been, 
He has been. 
Plural. 
We have been, 
Ye or you have been 
They have been, 



Singular. 
1 had been, 
You had been, 
He had been. 
Plural. 
We had been, 
Ye or you had been, 
They had been. 



Q. Will you repeat after me the 
Present tense, and name the Imper- 
fect tense, and Perfect participle of 
the verbs 'favor'? Move'? 533. 



Q,. When is a verb called Irregu- 
lar? 534. Give an example. 534. 



TENSES. 
First Future Tense. 



73 



Singular. 

1 I shall or will love, 

2 You shall or will love, 

3 He shall or will love. 



Plural. 

1 We shall or will love, 

2 Ye or you shall or 
will love, 

3 They shall or will 
love. 



Singular. 

1 I shall or will be lov- 
ed, 

2 You shall or will be 
loved, 

3 He shall or will be 
loved. 

Plural. 

1 We shall or will be 
loved, 

2 Ye or you shall or 
will be loved, 

3 They shall or will be 
loved. 



Singular. 

1 I shall or will be, 

2 You shall or will be, 

3 He shall or will be. 



Plural. 

1 We shall or will be, 

2 Ye or you shall or 
will be, 

3 They shall or will 
be. 



Second Future Tense. 



Singular. 

1 I shall have loved, 

2 You will have loved, 

3 He will have loved. 



Plural. 

1 We shall have loved, 

2 Ye or you will have 
loved, 

3 They will have loved. 



Singular* 

1 I may or can love, 

2 You may or can love, 

3 He may or can love. 



Plural. 

1 We may or can love, 

2 Ye or you may or 
can love, 

3 They may or can 
love. 



Singular. 

1 I shall have been lov- 
ed, 

2 You will have been 
loved, 

3 He will have been 
loved. 

Plural. 

1 We shall have been 
loved, 

2 Ye or you will have 
been loved, 

3 They will have been 
loved. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 

1 I may or can be lov- 
ed, 

2 You may or can be 
loved, 

3 He may or can be 
loved. 

Plural. 

1 We may or can be 
loved, 

2 Ye or you may or 
can be loved. 

3 They may or can be 
loved. 



Singular. 

1 I shall have been, 

2 You will have been, 

3 He will have been. 



Plural. 

1 We shall have been, 

2 Ye or you will have 
been, 

3 They will have been. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Singular. 

I might, could,would, 1 I might, could,would, 1 
or should love, or should be loved, 



Singular. 
I may or can be, 
You may or can be, 
He may or can be. 



Plural. 
We may or can be, 
Ye or you may or 
can be, 
They may or can be. 



Singular. 
I might, could, would, 
or should be, 



Q. Will you conjugate 'love' in 2. Future? Present passive? imper- 

the present tense, active voice, indi- feet? pluperfect? 1. Future? 2. Fw- 

cative mood? 535. In the imper- ture> 

feet? perfect? pluperfect? 1. Future? £ 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2 You might, could, 
would, or should love, 

3 He might, could, 
would, or should love. 



Plural. 

1 We might, could, 
would. or should love, 

2 Ye or you might, 
could. would, or 
should love, 

3 They might, could, 
wouid.or should love. 



Singular. 

1 I may or can have 
loved, 

2 You may or can have 
loved, 

3 He may or can have 
loved. 

Plural, 

1 We may or can have 
loved, 

2 Ye or you may or 
can have loved, 

3 They may or can 
have loved. 



2 You might, could, 
would, or should be 
loved, 

3 He might, could, 
would, or should be 
loved. 

Plural. 

1 We might, could, 
would, or should be 
loved, 

2 Ye or yon might, 
could, would, or 
should be loved. 

3 They might, could, 
would, or should be 
loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1 I may or can have 
been loved, 

2 You may or can have 
been loved, 

3 He may or can have 
beep loved. 

Plural. 

1 We may or can have 
been loved, 

2 Ye or you may or 
can have been loved. 

3 They may or can 
have been loved. 



2 You might, could; 
would, or should be, 

3 He might, could, 
would, or should be. 



Plural. 

1 We might, could, 
would or should be, 

2 Ye or you might, 
could, would, or 
should be, 

3 They might, could, 
would, or should be. 



Singular. 

1 I may or can have 
been, 

2 You mayor can have, 

3 He may or can have 
been. 

Plural. 

1 We may or can have- 
been, 

2 Ye or you may or can 
have been, 

3 They may or can 
have been. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Singular. 

1 I might, could, would, 1 I might, could, would, 1 
or should have loved. or should have been 
loved, 



Singular. 
I might, could, would f 
or should have been. 



2 You might, could, 



loved. 



would,or should have 2 You might, could, 2 You might, could, 

would,or should have 
been, 

wouid.or should have 3 He might, could, 3 He might, could, 

would,or should have 
been, 

Plural, 
We might, could, 
wouldjor should have 
been, 



Plural. 



would,or should have 
been loved. 
Plural. 



1 We might, could, 1 We might, could, 
wou!d,or should have would,or should have 



loved, 



been loved, 



Q,. Will you conjugate the verb 
fc to be', or 'am' in the present? the 
imperfect ? perfect? pluperfect? 1. 
Future } 2. Future? 

Q,. Will you name the first per- 
son singular, of the present indica- 
tive active and passive, of 'love', 
and the first person singular of the 
verb 'to be'? 



The second person in like man- 
ner? The third? The first person 
plural? second person plural? third? 
first person singular, Imperfect? sec- 
ond person? third? first person plu- 
ral? Second person plural? third? 
first person singular, Perfect? second 
person? third? first person plural? 
second? third? 



TENSES. 



2 Ye or you might, 
could ; would, or should 

have loved, 
3 They might, could, 

would,or should have 

loved. 



Singular. 

1 Ifl love, 

2 If you love, 

3 If he loves. 

Plural. 

1 If we love, 

2 If ye or you love. 

3 If they love. 

Singular. 

1 Ifl love, 

2 If you love, 

3 If he love. 

Plural. 

1 If we love, 

2 If ye or you love, 

3 If they love. 



Singular. 

1 Ifl loved, 

2 If you loved, 

3 If he loved. 

Plural. 

1 If we loved, 

2 If ye or you loved, 

3 If they loved. 



Singular. 

1 Ifl loved, 

2 If you loved, 

3 If he loved. 



2 Ye or you might, 
could, would, or 
should have been lov- 
ed, 

3 They might, could, 
would. or should have 
been loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Common Form. 
Singular. 

1 If I am loved, 

2 If you are loved. 

3 If he is loved. 

Plural. 

1 If we are loved, 

2 If ye or you are loved, 

3 If they are loved. 
Subjunctive Form. 

Singular. 

1 Ifl be loved, 

2 If you be loved, 

3 If he be loved. 

Plural. 

1 If we be loved, 

2 If ye or you be loved, 

3 If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense, 

Common Form. 
Singular. 

1 If I was loved, 

2 If you were loved, 

3 If he was loved. 

Plural. 

1 If we were loved, 

2 If ye or you were lov- 
ed, 

3 It they were loved. 
Subjunctive Form. 

Singular . 

1 If I were loved, 

2 If you were loved, 

3 If he were loved. 



Ye or you might, 
could, would, or 
should have been, 
I They might, could, 
would, or should 
have been. 



Singular. 

1 Ifl am, 

2 If you are, 

3 If he is. . 

Plural. 

1 If we are, 

2 If ye or you are, 

3 If they are. 

Singular. 

1 If I be, 

2 If you be, 

3 If he be. 

Plural. 

1 If we be, 

2 If ve or you be, 

3 If they be. , 



Singular. 

1 If I was, 

2 If you were, 

3 If he was. 

Plural. 

1 If we were, 

2 If ye or you were. 

3 If they were. 



Singular. 
3 If I were, 

2 If you were, 

3 If he were. 



Q,. Will you conjugate Move' in 
like manner, through each person 
and voice of the pluperfect? first and 
second futures ? present potential? 
imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? Pre- 
sent Subjunctive, Common form? 
subjunctive form? imperfect, com- 
mon form? subjunctive form? per- 
fect? pluperfect? first and second fu- 
tures? 



Q. WiU you conjugate Move' in 
the present indicative active? imper- 
fect? perfect? pluperfect? first and 
second futures? Present passive? im- 
perfect? perfect? pluperfect? first and 
second futures? Present indicative 
of Mo be'? imperfect? perfect? plu- 
perfect? first and second futures? 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


1 If we loved, 


1 If we were loved, 


1 If we were, 


2 If ye or you loved, 


2 If ye or you were 


2 If ye or you were, 


3 If they loved. 


loved, 
3 If they were loved. 


3 If they were. 


The remaining tenses are all of the common form. 




Perfect Tense. 




Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


1 If I have loved, 


1 If I have been loved, 


1 If I have been, 


2 If you have loved, 


2 If you have been 


2 If you have been, 


3 If he has loved. 


loved, 
3 If he has been loved. 


3 If he has been. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


1 If we have loved, 


1 If we have been 


1 If we have been, 


2 If ye or you have 


loved, 


2 If ye or you have 


loved, 


2 If ye or you have 


been. 


3 If they have loved. 


been loved, 
3 If they have been 
loved. 


3 If they have been. 


Pluperfect Tense. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular, 


1 If I had loved, 


1 If I had been loved. 


1 If I had been, 


2 If you had loved, 


2 If you had been 


2 If you had been, 


3 If he had loved. 


loved, 
3 If he had been loved. 


3 If he had been. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


1 If we had loved, 


1 If we had been loved. 


1 If we had been, 


2 If ye or you had 


2 If ye or you had been 


2 If ye or you had 


loved, 


loved, 


been, 


3 If they had loved. 


3 If they had been 
loved. 


3 If they had been. 



Q,. Will you conjugate 'love' 
through each person of the indica- 
tive active? passive? the neuter verb 
'to be'? also in the imperfect? per- 
fect? pluperfect? first and second 
futures? pres. potential? imperfect? 
perfect? pluperfect? present subjunc- 
tive, in both forms? perfect? pluper- 
fect? first and second futures? 

Q. What is the present infinitive 
active of Move'? pres. passive? pres. 
of 'to be'? perfect active, of 'love'? 
perfect passive? perfect of 'to be'? 
pres. participle active of Move'? pres. 
passive? present of 'to be'? perfect of 
'love ? perfect ot 'to be'? compound 
perfect of 'love', in the active? in 
the passive of 'to be'? 

Q,. In what voice and mood is 'I 
love'? 'they love'? 'they are loved'? 
'are they loved'? 'I do love'? What 
is the force of 'do'? In what voice 
and mood is 'The man loved'? 'he 



has loved'? 'he has been loved'? 'has 
he been loved'? 'she had loved'? she 
had been loved'? 'we shall love'? 
'we shall bo loved'? " Shall I have 
heen loved": "May I love"? "May 
I be loved" ? " She may have loved"? 
" She may have been loved"? "If I 
love"? " If he be loved"? " If he is 
loved"? " If I love"? " If I were lov- 
ed" "If I was loved?" 

Q,. In what tense is, " they love?" 
" ye are loved"? " she did love"? 
"we were loved?"" they shall love'? 
" they shall be loved"? "I may be 
loved"? " If she has been loved"? 

Q,. In what number and person is 
" I love"? " We love"? " He does 
love"? " The man did love"? " The 
men were loved"? " If he love"? "If 
I was"? " If 1 were"? " If ye have 
been"? " If ye have loved"? "You 
may be loved"? 





TENSES, 


77 


First Future Tense. 


singular. 


Singular. 


Singular: 


1 If I shall or will love, 


1 If I shall or will be 


1 If I shall or will be, 


2 If you shall or will 


loved, 


2 If you shall or will 


love, 


2 If you shall or will 


be, 


3 If he shall or will 


be loved, 


3 If he shall or will be. 


love. 


3 If he shall or will be 
loved. 




Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


1 If we shall or will 


1 If we shall or will be 


1 If we shall or will be 


love, 


loved, 


2 If ye or you shall or 


"2 If ye or you shall or 


2 If ye or you shall or 


will be } 


will love, 


will be loved, 


3 If they shall or will 


3 If they shall or will 


3 If they shall or will 


be. 


love. 


be loved. 




Second Future Tense. 


Singular. 


Singular . 


Singular. 


1 If 1 shall have loved. 


1 If I shall have been 


1 If I shall have been, 


2 If you shall have lov- 


loved, 


2 If you shall have 


ed, 


2 If you shall have been 


been, 


3 If he shall have loved. 


loved, 
3 If he shall have been 
loved. 


3. If he shall have heen. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


1 If we shall have lov- 


1 If we shall have been 


1 If we shall have been, 


ed, 


loved, 


2 If ye or you shall 


2 If ye or you shall 


2 If ye or you shall 


have been, 


have loved, 


have been loved, 


3 If they shall have 


3 If they shall have 


3 If they shall have 


been. 


loved. 


been loved. 
Imperative Mood. 

Present Tense. 




Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


2 Love you, or do you 


2 Be you loved, or do 


2 Be you, or doyoube. 


love. 


you be loved. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


2 Be ye or you, or do 


2 Love ye or you, or 


2 Be ye or you loved, or 


ye or you be, 


do ye or you love. 


do ye or you be loved. 





Pres. To love, 
Perf. To have loved. 



Infinitive Mood. 
Prcs. To be loved, 
Perf. To have been 
loved. 



Pres. To be, 

Perf. To have been. 



Q. Is 'love,' as " They love," a 
regular or irregular verb? Why? 533. 
active or passive? 439. What mood 
is it in? Why? 452. tense? Why? 
482. number? person? What does 
Move' agree with ? Rule VII. 

Q,. Is 'are,' as " They are," a reg- 
ular or irregular verb? Why? 534. 
passive or neuter? Why? 450. What 
mood is it in? Why? 452. tense? 
Why? 482. number? person? Rule 
for its agreement? VII. 
G2 



Q,. What is the Present Impera- 
tive of Move"? Pres. Infinitive? 

Q,. What mood and tense is "Love 
yeoryou"? Is "To have been lov- 
ed"? 

Q,. Will you conjugate 'learn' in 
the present indicative active? pas- 
sive? perfect active? perfect passive? 
Present potential active? passive? 
Imperfect active? passive? Impera- 
tive present active? passive? Perfect 
infinitive active? passive? Pres. eub~ 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Prcs. Loving, 
Pcrf. Loved, 
Compound Pcrf. 

ins: loved. 

536. For the 



PARTICIPLES. 
Prcs. Being loved, 
Pcrf. Loved, 
Hav- Compound Pcrf. Hav- 
ing been loved. 
benefit of those who wish 



Prcs. Being, 
Pcrf. Been, 
Compound Pcrf. Hav- 
ing been. 
to retain the pronoun 



'thou,' in the conjugation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. 
The pupil can take it separately, or be taught it in connexion with 
the other persons of the verb, by substituting 'thou 3 for 'you' in the 
foregoing conjugation. 

Synopsis ivith Thou. 

Indic at iv e Mood. 
Prcs. Thou lovest. Thou art loved. Thou art. 

Imp. Thou lovedst. Thou wast loved. Thou wast. 

Pcrf. Tiiou hast lov- Thou hast been loved. Thou hast been. 



ed. 

Plup. Thou hadst lov- 
ed. 

1 Fut. Thou shalt or 

wilt love. 

2 Fut. Thou wilt have 

loved. 

537. 
Prcs. Thou mayst or 

canst love. 
Imp. Thou mightst, 

couldst, wouldst or 

shouldst love. 
Pcrf. Thou mayst or 

canst have loved. 
Plup. Thou mightst, 

couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst have loved. 

538. 

Pres. If thou lovest. 

Imp. If thou loved. 
539. 

Prcs. If thou love. 

Imp. If thou loved. 
540. 

Pcrf. If thou hast lov- 
ed. 

Plup. If thou hadst 
loved. 

1 Fut. If thou shalt or 
wilt love. 

2 Fut. If thou shalt 
have loved. 



Thou hadst been loved, 
wilt be 
been 



Thou shalt or 

loved. 
Thou wilt have 

loved. 
Potential Mood. 
Thou mayst or canst 

be loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

be loved. 
Thou mayst or canst 

have been loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

have been loved. 

Subjunctive xMood. 

Common Form. 
If thou art loved. 
If thou wast loved. 

Subjunctive Form. 
If thou be loved. 
If thou wert loved. 
Common Form. 
If thou hast been loved. 



If tho 

ed. 
If thou shalt or 

loved. 
If thou shalt have been 

loved. 



hadst been Iot- 
wilt be 



Thou hadst been. 
Thou shalt or wilt be. 
Thou wilt have been. 

Thou mayst or canst be. 

Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst, or should be. 

Thou mayst or canst 

have been. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

have been. 

If thou art. 
If thou wast. 

If thou be. 
If thou wert. 

If thou hast been. 

If thou hadst been. 

If thou shalt or wilt be. 

If thou shalt have been. 



junctive active in both forms? 
Passive? perfect infinitive? Future 
active ? passive? 

Q,. What kind of verb, (that is, 
regular or irregular) what voice, 
mood, tense, number, and person, is 



] 



sine"? 
"You 

a"? 



' We are formed? " 
are determined' '? 



He 
"It 

rains "f "It has happened?" "The 
man was respected"? " The boys did 
study"? "If he improve"? "Unless 
he repent"? "Although she be dis- 



TENSES. 



79 



541. 



Interrogative Form. 
Indicative Present. 
Singular. 

1 Am I loved? 

2 Are you loved? 

3 Is he loved? 
Plural. 

1 Are we loved? 

2 Are ye or you loved? 

3 Are they loved? 



Singular. 

1 Am I? 

2 Are you? 

3 Is he? 

Plural. 

1 Are we? 

2 Are ye or you? 

3 Are thev? 



Singular. 

1 Do I love? 

2 Do you love 2 

3 Does he love? 

Plural. 

1 Do we love? i 

2 Do ye or you lov 

3 Do they love ? 
542. You will find on examination of the foregoing conjugation, 

that the tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the 
corresponding ones of the indicative except the iollowing: namely, the 
present and imperfect of the verb ' to be; J the present and imperfect 
of the passive ; the present and the second future active. The last 
however corresponds in termination, but not in formation. Among 
the exceptions should be reckoned the use of the conjunction c if. ? 
There are instances, however, of the subjunctive form, when no con- 
junction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly understood; 
' as, " Were I to go, he would not follow," "Had he known me, he 
would have treated me differently,'' that is, "If I were to go," and 
" If he had known." Examples of this description are conjugated 
as follows. 

Subjunctive Form. 



543. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Singular 

1 Were I, 

2 Were you, 

3 Were he. 


Plural. 

1 Were we, 

2 Were ye or you, 

3 Were they. 


Singular 

1 Had I loved, 

2 Had you loved, 

3 Had he loved. 


Pluperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1 Had we loved, 

2 Had ye or you loved, 

3 Had they loved. 



appointed"? " He may depart"? 
" Depart now"? " To love"? " To 
sing"? " To be sung"? " To rejoice"? 
" To have wept"? " To have been 
seen"? " To have been found"? 

Q,. Will you give the synopsis of 
'love' joined with 'thou' through 
the indicative active? passive? Neu- 
ter verb 'to be'? 

Q,. Will you name the synopsis of 
'learn' in the first person in the active 
voice through each mood and tense? 
Will you repeat the three tenses of 
the infinitive and the three partici- 
ples? Synopsis of 'honor' in like 
manner through the passive? Also 
the synopsis of the verb 'to be'? Give 
the synopsis of 'desire' in the active, 



like 'love'? In the passive? Verb 'to 
be'? first person plural active? pas- 
sive? 'to be'? third person active? pas- 
sive? 'to be'? 

Q, What mood does the subjunc- 
tive resemble in its tenses? 542. 

Q,. What exceptions? 542. 

Q,. How does the second future 
differ? 542. 

Q, Will you explain the differ- 
ence? 542. 

Q,. What is the sign of the sub- 
junctive mood? 516. Is it always ex- 
pressed? 542. Give an example? 
542Will you supply the conjunction? 

Q,. Will you conjugate the verb 
'to be' in the subjunctive mood, im- 
perfect tense, without its usual sigm 



so 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



544. The second person singular of all verbs* formerly (1) ended in 
st; as, " Thou hast,' " Thou wast," &c. This form is still retained 
by that respectable class of persons denominated(2) 'Friends/ and in 
the sacred(3) scriptures. (3) 

545. Eth 3 for the termination of the third person singular obtain- 
ed(4) very generally till within a recent(o) period, especially on 
grave(6) and didactic(T) subjects; as, "He that hath ears to hear, let 
him hear." c% Simple multiplication teacheth to repeat," &c. But the 
custom of the present day is decidedly (8) against the usage, (9) 

546. The scriptures abound(lO) with instances of the use of the 
pronoun 'ye' for 'you'; as, "Ye are the salt of the earth;' but it is 
scarcely to be met with in any standard works of modern date. 

547. The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of 
the verb. 

Indicative Present. 

Singular. Singular. 

1 I am loved, 1 I am, 

2 Thou art loved 2 Thou art, 

3 He is loved. 3 He is. 
Plural. Plural. 

1 We are loved, 1 We are, 

2 Ye or you are loved, 2 Ye or you are, 

3 They are loved. 3 They are. 

548. QZTFor a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, the 
learner is referred to those treatises on Grammar, in our schools, which pro- 
fess to furnish him with a suie and infallible guide to the true and proper 
use of the English language. 

RULE VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb. 



Singular. 

1 I love, 

2 Thou lovest, 

3 He loveth or loves. 

Plural. 
\ We love, 

2 Ye or you love, 

3 Thev love. 



In like manner conjugate 'have' in 
the pluperfect? 

Q Will you conjugate Move' in 
the present active, interrogative 
form? passive? Neuter verb 'to be'? 

Q,. In what voice, mood, tense, 
number, and pe.son is "Do I study"? 
" Did she study"? " Were they dis- 
missed"? " Are we"? 

Q,. In what did the second person 
singular of all verbs formerly end? 
544. Give an example. 544. 

Q,. Meaning of 'formerly'? 544. 

Q,. By whom is this termination 
still retained? 544. In what writings? 
544. 

Q,. Meaning of " sacred scrip- 
tures'? 544. 

Q,. What form of the third person 



singular obtained till recently? 545. 
Give an example. 545. 

Q. Meaning of 'obtained'? 545. Of 
'recent'? 545. 

Q,. On what subjects was the ter- 
mination eth used in writing? 545. 

Q,. Meaning of 'grave? of 'didac- 
tic'? 545. 

Q. In what writings do we find 
'ye' used for 'you'? 546. 

Q,. Is it common in modern works? 
546. 

Q, Will you conjugate 'love' in the 
present active, according to the an- 
cient usage? 547. Passive? neuter 
verb 'to be'? 

Q. In what number and person is 
'He hath'? " He hates"? " Thou lov- 
est"? Thou hast"? " He iearneth"'' 



* Excepting 'art. 5 

1. Some time ago. 2. Called. 3. The Bihle. 4. Prevailed. 
Serious. 7. Abounding in precepts or instructive. 8. Positively. 
Have many. 



5. Late. 6. 
9. Use. 10. 



VERBS. SI 

RULE VII. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

RULE VIII. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective 
case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" William was admired for his prudence." 

549. c William' is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, and in the nominative case to 'was 
admired/ agreeably to Rule VI. 

'Was admired' is a regular passive verb, from the verb 'to 

admire', pres. admire, imp. admired, perf. part, admired. 1. I was 

admired, 2. You were admired, 3. He or William was admired, 

made in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, singu- 

- lar number, and agrees with 'William,' according to Rule VII. 

'For' is a preposition. 

'His' is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, and agrees with 'William,' according to 
Rule V. Nom. 'He,' Poss. 'His' — made in the possessive case, 
and governed by 'prudence,' by Rule I. 

'Prudence is a common noun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, neuter gender, objective case, and governed by 'for'' by 
Rule VIII. 

Exercises in parsing continued. 
" John was applauded for his elo- " The girl was ridiculed by her 

quence." companions." 

" The king was crowned at West- " Susan was respected for her 

minster Abbey " virtuous conduct." 

" Thomas has been esteemed." " James will be [rewarded by his 
" The business will be regulated." instructor." 

2. 
" We may be esteemed." " Justice may have been stayed." 

" He might have been promoted." " The task must be performed." 
" William would have been de- " We should not(l) be easily (1) 

throned." disheartened in a good cause.' 3 

"Ye learn"? "He rejoiceth"? "Thou Q. " William was admired for his 

art rejoiced"? "Thou art"? "He prudence.''" Will you parse 'Wil- 

weepeth"? '-Addition teacheth"? Ham'? 549. 'was admired'? 549. 'for'? 

" He that hath ears"? " He that sin- 549. 'his'? 549. 'prudence'? 549. 

neth"? " Thou lovedst"? " Thou Q. What is a passive verb? 444. 

mightst, couldst,wouldst,or shouldst How formed? 510. Why is 'admir- 

have lamented" ed' regular? 533. 

Q,. What is the rule for the agree- Q,. Why is 'for' a preposition? 246. 

ment of the verb? rule for the nom- W T hy is 'his' a pronoun? 381. 

inative? rule by which verbs govern Q,. Will you now parse the re- 

the objective case? maining exercises? 

1. Adverb. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cc If he be learned." 

550. c If is a copulative conjunction. 

'Be learned* is a regular passive verb, from the verb 'to learn,' 
pres. learn, imper. learned, perf. part, learned— 1. If I be learned, 
2. If you be learned, 3. If he be learned— made in the subjunctive 
mood, subjunctive form, present tense, third person, singular num- 
ber, and agrees with 'he,' according to Rule VII. 
Exercises in Syntax continued. 
"If John be rewarded. 55 "Although you will be disap- 

"If I am noticed. 55 pointed.' 5 

" Unless he be punished. 55 " If the man had been elected." 

" Although they are respected." " Except he repent. 55 
" Columbus discovered America." " Susan assisted the little girl. 55 
" America was discovered by Co- " The little girl was assisted by 

.lumbus." Susan. 55 

" John wounded his brother. 55 " Pain follows pleasure. 55 

" John's brother was wounded by " Pleasure is followed by pain. 5 ' 

him. 55 

2. 
" An obedient son is deservedly " Unless great labor had been he- 
respected by his friends. 55 stowed on William, he would 
" An idle boy will be punished. 55 have disappointed the expecta- 
" Without knowledge, a man is tions of his parents. 55 

commonly(l) despised.' 5 "He will not(l) mind without 

corporal punishment.'' 
3. 
" The boy who visited me in Sep- " They that seek knowledge will 

tember died in the city of Bos- find it. 55 
e . *°n." , Cf That Hon which was exhibited 

I he man whom I found perish- in this town has been killed by 

ed in a storm of snow. 55 his keeper " 

4. 
" I found(2) John and William(3) " I have assisted him and his sis- 

m the garden with their father ter in many difficulties, to 

and mother. (3J no (4) purposed 

fXLVI. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their Im- 
perfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or e d to 
the present tense; as, 



Q * VJ^» lG n™ e F ^1" ?° u Q ' W[, y in the subjunctive form? 
parse 'if? 5d0. 'be learned'? 550. 443. 

VVhy in the subjunetive mood? Q. Will you parse the remaining 

4ob * exercises in these lessons? 

4. Lljeaive* ^ Irre S ular verb « 3 - F °r < William' and 'mother' appl^RuT^xT 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



S3 



Pres. tense. 
Go, 


Imp erf. tense. 
Went, 


Perf. Participle. 
Gone. 


Begin, 


Began, 


Begun. 


LIST 


OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 


$5* Those marked 


r. admit likewise a regular form. 


Present. 
Abide 


Imperfect. 
abode 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 
abode. 


Am 


was 


been. 


Arise 


arose 


arisen. 


Awake 


awoke, r 


awaked . 


Bear, to bring forth 


bare 


born. 


Bear, to carry 


bore 


borne. 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat. 


Berrin 


began 


begun. 


r>end 


bent 


bent. 


Bereave 


bereft, r 


bereft, r. 


Beseech 
Bid 


besought 
bid, bade 


besought, 
bidden, bid. 


Bind 


bound 


bound. 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed 


bled 


bled. 


Blow 


blew 


blown. 


Break 


broke 


broken. 


Breed 


bred 


bred. 


Bring 


brought 


brought. 


Build 


built 


built. 


Burst 


burst 


burst. 


Buy 
Cast 


bought 
cast 


bought, 
cast. 


Catch 


caught, r 


caught, r 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid. 


Choose 


chose 


chosen. 


Cleave, to stick or ad- ) 
here £ 


REGULAR. 




Cleave, to split 


clove or cleft 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling 


clung 


clung. 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad, r 


Come 


came 


come. 


Cost 


cost ■ 


cost. 


Crow 


crew,r 


crowed. 


Creep 


crept 


crept. 


Cut 


cut 


cut. 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared. 


Dare, r. to challenge 






Deal 


dealt, r 


dealt, r 


Dig 
Do 


dug, r 
did 


dug. r 
done. 


Draw 


drew 


drawn. 







Q,. Will you name the present and 
imperfect tenses, also the perfect 
participle of'Am'? 'Arise'? 'Awake'? 
'Bear'? (to carry.) 'Begin'? 'Bid'? 
'Bite'? 'Break'? 'Choose'? Do'? 
'Drink'? 'Eat'? 'Forget'? 'Go'? 
Have'? 'Known'? 'Lie'? (to lie 



dowm)'Mow'?'Rise'? 'See'? 'Throw'? 
'Weave'? 'Write'? 

1FXLVI. When is a verb called 
irregular? 551. 

Q,. In what cases do we use par- 
ticiples? Note VI. 



84 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part- 


Drive 
Drink 
Dwell 


drove 
drank 
dwelt, r 


driven, 
drunk, 
dwelt, r 


Eat 
Fall 


eat or ate 


eaten. 


fell 


fallen. 


Feed 


fed 


fed. 


Feel 
Fight 


felt 
fought 


felt, 
fought. 


Find 


found 


found. 


Flee 
Fling 
Fly 
Forget 


fled 
flung 
flew 
forgot 


fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken. 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen. 


Get 


got 


got* 


Gild 


gilt, r 


gilt, r 


Gird 


girt, r 


girt, r 


Give 


gave 


given. 


Go 


went 


gone. 


Grave 


graved 


graven, r 


Grind 


ground 


ground. 


Grow 


grew 


grown. 


Have 


had 


had. 


Han°* 


hung, r 


hung, r 


* uu o 
Hear 


heard 


heard. 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, r 


Hide 
Hit 


hid 
hit 


hidden, hid 
hit. 


Hold 


held 


held. 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt. 


Keep 
Knit 


kept 
knit, r 


kept, 
knit, r. 


Know 


knew 


known. 


Lade 


laded 


laden. 


Lay 

Lead 


laid 
led 


laid, 
led. 


Leave 


left 


left. 


Lend 


lent 


lent. 


Let 


let 


let. 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain. 


Load 


loaded 


laden, r. 


Lose 


lost 


lost. 


Make 


made 


made. 


Meet 


met 


met. 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, r. 


Pay 


paid 


paid. 


Put 


put 


put. 


Read 


read 


read. 


Rend 


rent 


rent. 


Rid 


rid 


rid. 


Ride 


rode 


rode, ridden, t 


Ring 


rung, rang. 


rung. 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten is still in good use. 
| Ridden is nearly obsolete. 



IRREGULAR VERBS, 



85 



Present* 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Rise 


rose 


risen. 


Rive 


rived 


riven. 


Run 


ran 


run. 


Saw 


saw 


sawn, r. 


Say 


said 


said. 


See 


saw 


seen. 


Seek 


sought 


sought. 


Sell 


sold 


sold. 


Send 


sent 


sent. 


Set 


set 


set. 


Shake 


shook 


shaken. 


Shape 


shaped 


shaped, shapen, r. 


Shave 


shaved * 


shaven, r. 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn. 


Shed 


shed 


shed. 


Shine 


shone, r 


shone, r. 


Show 


showed 


shown. 


Shoe 


shod 


shod. 


Shoot 


shot 


shot. 


Shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk. 


Shred 


shred 


shred. 


Shut 


shut 


shut. 


Sing 


sung, sang 


sung. 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk, 


Sit 


sat 


sat. 


Slay 


slew 


slain. 


Sleep 


slept 


slept. 


Slide 


slid 


slid den. 


Sling 


slung 


slung. 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk. 


Slit 


slit, r. 


slit, or slitted. 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown, r. 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken. 


Speed 


sped 


sped. 


Spend 


spent 


spent. 


Spill 


spilt, r. 


spilt, r. 


Spin 


spun 


spun. 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit, spitten.* 


Split 


split 


split, r. 


Spread 


spread 


spread. 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


sprung. 


Stand 


stood 


stood. 


Steal 


stole 


stolen. 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck. 


Sting 


stung 


stung. 


Stink 


stunk 


stunk. 


Stride 


strode or strid 


stridden. 


Strike 


struck 


struck or stricken. 


String 


strung 


strung. 


Strive 


strove 


striven. 


Strow or strew 


strowed or strewed 


£ strown, strowed, 
\ strewed. 


Swear 


swore 


sworn. 


Sweat 


swet, r. 


swet,r. 



*SpiPten is nearly obsolete. 

H 



so 

Present. 

Swell 

Swim 

8 wing 

Take 

Teach 

Tear 

Tell 

Think 

Thrive 

Throw 

Thrust 

Tread 

Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Weep 

Win 

Wind 

Work' 

Wiing 

Write 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. 

swelled 

swum, swam 

swung 

look 

taught 

lore 

told 

thought 

throve, ?\ 

threw 

thrust 

trod 

waxed f 

wore 

wove 

w 7 ept 

won 

wound 

wrought 

wrung 

wrote 



Perf. or Pass. Part. 

swollen, r. 

swum. 

swung. 

taken. 

taught. 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 

thriven. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

trodden. 

waxen, r. 

worn. 

woven. 

wept. 

won. 

wound. 

wrought or worked. 

wrung. 

written. 



553. We say " I have seen/' " I had seen," and " I am seen," 
using the participle 'seen' instead of the verb 'saw'; hence, 

Note VI. We should use participles, only, after 'have' and 
'had' and the verb 'to be.' 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

<c John has written his copy." 

554. 'Has written' is an irregular active -transitive verb, 
from the verb 'to write; pres. write, imperf. wrote, perf. part, writ- 
ten. 1. I have written, 2. You have written, 3. He or 'John' has 
written : found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, third person, 



Q,. Will you correct in accordance 
with Note VI. the following exam- 
ples from the List above? 

" John has wrote." 

" He done it well." 

" The sun has rose." 

il The sun risen yesterday in a 
cloud." 

"I see him yesterday." 

" He has did his task." 

" The birds have flew away." 

"The birds flown." 

" The post is drove into the 
ground." 

" He began to write." 

" The task is began." 

" I had went with him." 

" My brother has not spoke." 

u The cloth is wove." 

"The boys run swiftly." 



" The thief has stole my watch." 
" His copy was wrote well." 
81 He was smote on his cheek." 
" John was awoke by the noise." 
" My father has came." 
" He come yesterday." 
" Mary has chose the better part." 
11 He drunk to excess." 
li The book was gave to me." 
" His friends have forsook him." 
" He was not forsook by his chil- 
dren." 

" The laborer worked forme forty 
days." 
" He was took and bound." 
Q,. " John has written his copv." 
Will you parse 'has written*? 

Q,. Why is 'has written' an irreg- 
ular verb? 551. Why active? 439. 
Why transitive? 440. 



EXERCISES. 



87 



singular number, and agrees with c John,' by Rule VII. 
<C0 P) r >' ail( l 'his, 3 are parsed as before. 

Exercises in Syntax continued, 
1. 



'John/ 



"Job has struck John." 

" John has been struck by Job." 

" The men caught the thiefin the 

tavern." 
" The thief was caught by the 

men in the tavern. 35 
' c A wise son will make a glad fa- 
ther." 

" The act was done by William. 3 ' 

i 

" John is at home." 
" Rufus rode into the country. 5 ' 
" The sun will shine." 
■ " The thief was confined in jail/' 
"The horse ran with great vio- 
lence. ,: 

" If he will assist me, I shall be 
much (1) obliged to him." 

"If he be virtuous, then he will 
be happy." 

c f If he is happy, then I am con- 
tented."' 

" Had he mentioned that circum- 
stance, I should have avoided 
my present calamities. 5 

" Although he acknowledged his 



his little brother 
makes good 



3. 



" James found 

in the boat." 
" The instructor 

pens." 
" The farmer ploughs the ground 

in spring." 
" I may spend my time in the 

country." 



" He abode in peace." 

"They would be cruel." 

" We "may have been negligent." 

" The boys should have been stu- 
dious. 5 ' 
William was in town.' 

faults, still he would not recom- 
pense me. 5 ' 

" I will write him, lest he neglect 
my business." 

" Should I be disappointed, I 
shall despair. 55 

" Unless he repent he will not be 
pardoned. 55 

" Were I in your place, I would 
relieve him. 5 ' 



" Thou hast benefitted me." 
" Ye make no pretensions. 55 
" This doctrine hath no follow- 
ers. 5 ' 
" If thou love me.'' 
" If thou art more comfortable, I 
heartily rejoice. "' 

"If Thomas, who is at school, 
return in season, I will visit 
you." 

" The boys whom I admonished, 
have reformed/ 5 

" The man whose life was in dan- 
ger, returned in safety. 5 ' 

" The task, which the instructor 



" Dost thou hear mel" 
" Hath he many advisers! 55 
" Ye do always err. 55 
"Thou shalt surely die." 
" If thou hadst obeyed me, thou 
wouldst not have been disap- 
pointed." 



5. 



imposed, was performed with 
reluctance. 55 

" The measure which he adopts 
will succeed/' 

" I have known a little child that 
exhibited the prudence of ma- 
ture years. 5 ' 



1. Adverb. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

flXLVII. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

555. When I say, "John begins to read," 'to read' is a verb in the 
Infinitive mood, and it follows, as you perceive, the verb 'begins;' 
hence we say that it is governed by 'begins. 

" He is beginning to read." Here, the Infinitive follows the parti- 
ciple 'beginning'; it is, therefore, governed by 'beginning.' 

" He is eager to learn." Here, the Infinitive follows the adjective 
'eager;' we therefore say that it is governed by 'eager.' 

" He has an opportunity to learn." Here, the Infinitive, 'to learn,' 
is governed by the noun 'opportunity,' because it follows the noun. 

In like manner the Infinitive may be governed by pronouns; as, 
" There is a fine opportunity for him to learn" : hence, 

RULE XII. 

The Infinitive Mood may be governed by verbs, 
participles, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"James begins to learn." 
-556. 'To learn' is a regular transitive verb; pres. learn, imp. learn- 
ed, perf. part, learned; made in the infinitive mood, present tense, 
and governed by 'begins,' agreeably to Rule XII. 'James' and 'be- 
gins,' are parsed as before. 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
" George desires to learn. 5 ' grammar teaches us to write 

" He is eager to learn." correctly." 

"He has a desire to study.'' "He should seek to obtain 

"It seems to please John." knowledge." 

" William has come to see us." "We maybe taught to write, 
" They are determined to excel." read, and spell." 
" A knowledge of the rules of 

Omission of Ho'' ih& usual sign of the Infinitive. 

"John saw the man strike (1) " I heard the clock strike." 

the boy." " The tutor bade him do it." 

" The instructor made him sub- " The soldiers dare not rebel." 

mit." Cf My uncle let the boys play in 

" They need not proceed in such the garden. ' 

haste." iC See(2) the blind beggar dance.'' 

UXLVII. "John begins to read." governs 'to learn' in this case? 555. 

In what mood is 'to read? 555. Why ? 555. 

Why? 479. By what is it governed? Q, " He lias an opportunity to 

555. Why? 555. learn." What part of speech gov- 

Q,. " He is beginning to read." erns 'to learn' in this example? 555. 

What governs 'to read' in this case? Why? 555. 

555, Q,. " opportunity for him to 

Q,. " He is eager to learn." What learn." What does the infinitive 



1. 'Strike* is governed by Rule XII. 

2. 'See' is in the imperative, agreeing 



imperative, agreeing with 'thou' or 'you,' understood, by 
Rule VII. 



PARTICIPLES. 89 

Note VII.— The Infinitive Mood is sometimes governed by 
conjunctions or adverbs; as, -The summit of a mountain so 

high as to be invisible." 

examples. 
« They are about(2) to depart." " He desired no more(3) than(4) 
« He is wise enough(2) to study." to know his duty 



flXLVIII. 

557 We have before seen that participles partake of the nature of 
two parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point ; o ^re- 
semblance which participles have to adjectives, is ^J^^^ ^! 
noun in the sentence in whiqji they are used; as, " The sun^ s set 
ting:" here, the participle letting' is said to refer to the noun sun, 
hence, 

RULE XXII. 

Participles refer to nouns. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

u The wind is rising," 

558. 'Rising is a present active participle, from the irregular verb 
'to rise'; pres^ rise, imp. rose, perf. part, risen; and it refers to wind, 
according to Rule XIII. 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
1. 
« The moon is setting." " Mary was playing." 

" The sun is rising." " I have been writing. 

" The trees are growing." cc I found him crying. ' 

« John was dancing." " I left him rejoicing. 

PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

iC The rising sun cheers us." 
559. 'Rising' is a participial adjective, from the verb 'to rise; 5 pres. 
rise, imp. rose, perf. part, risen; and belongs to 'sun, oy Rule IV. 

here follow? By what, then, is it earned? What is the note for this? 

SO aWhat,°then, may be regarded ^XLIX. What is a participle?- 

as a rule for the government of the 498. 

infinitive? XII Q. "The sun is setting. What 

Q. « John begins to learn." Will is 'setting'? 557 To what then 

vou parse 'to learn'? 'James'? 'be- does 'setting' refer? o57. Rule? XIII. 

gins'? 550. a. Will you now parse 'setting, 

& d. Is 'to' ever omitted? 480. in full? 

Q Will you now parse the exer- Q. Will you parse the next lesson." 

cises in the lessons which follow? Q. Will you parse 'rising in the 

Q What is the infinitive mood sentence, " The rising sun? 5oJ. 

used for? 479. Why is it called a participial adjec- 

Q,. " They are about to depart." five? Ans. Because it describes, like 

By what is the infinitive here gov- 

2. Adverb. 3. Noun. 4. Conjunction. 

H2 



90 



' The setting sun reminds us of 

declining years." 
' The roaring winds alarm us." 
' The writing-master has leftus." 
f The singing-master visited me/ 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercises in St/ntax continued. 
2. 



" The roaring cataract strikes us 
with awe." 

"The laboring man should not 
be defrauded. " 



3. 



1 Having dined, I returned to 
school." 

c Having fought bravely, they 
were at last(l) overcome." 

; John, having exercised too vio- 
lently, fainted. 



returned mortified at 



i( William 

his loss." 
"The stream, swollen by the 

rains, overflowed its banks." 
cc The man, accustomed to his 

glass, seldom reforms. 

"A dissipated son grieves his 

parents." 
" We must not neglect any known 

duty." 
"My father took the forsaken 

c< The men being fatigued by la- 
bor, sought rest in sleep." 

" William being dismissed from 
college, retired to the country." 5 

(s Thomas, after having been re- 
peatedly admonished to no ef- 



6. 



C( Having slept, he recovered his 

strength." 
" Having retired to rest, he was 

seized with violent pain.'' 
" The thief having escaped, was 

never afterwards seen in that 

region." 

"A child left to follow his own 
inclinations, is most commonly 
ruined.' 5 

" Admired and applauded, he be- 
came vain.'' 



youth into his own house, and 
rendered him deserved assist- 
ance." 
: William befriended the desert- 
ed man." 

feet, was severely and justly 
punished." 
' The tree having been weighed 
down for a Jong time by abun- 
dance of fruit, at last fell to the 
ground." 



RULE XIY. 

Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, 
govern the objective case. 

" James is beating John/' 
560. 'John* is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number 
masculine gender, objective case, and governed by 'beating,' by Rule 



an adjective, and implies action, like 
a participle. 

Q. Will you now parse the next 
lesson? 

Q. What kind of a participle is 
" Having dined"? 504. Why? 504. 



Q,. Who dined, in the phrase. 
' Having dined I returned to school.'? 

Q. To what, then, does 'having 1 
returned' refer? Rule? XIII. Will 
you now parse the remaining les- 
sons? 



I- 'At la6t' is an adverbial phrase. 



EXERCISES. 91 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
1. 

" John is striking William.'' immediately set off for Bos- 

cc Susan is studying her lesson." ton.' 1 

' c Mary has been repeating her " I spied the cat watching a 

lesson to her mother. 5 ' mouse.'' 

" The teamster, seeing the stage "Having given directions to his 

upsetting, ran and prevented it. " servants, he left his family and 
" Having obtained my request, I took the stage for Washington. 5 ' 

"He delights in fighting.' 5 

561. 'Fighting' is a participial noun, in the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition c in,' according to Rule X. 
Exercises in Syntax continued. 
1. 
"Job was exhausted by wrest- "Job practises fencing every day. " 

ling." " The instructor teaches reading, 

" Mary acquired a livelihood by writing, and spelling, in his 

sewing." school." 

"Walter excels in writing." "Whispering is forbidden in 

" Fishing delights me.' 5 school." 

2. 
562. "You will much oblige me by sending those books." 

'Sending 5 is a participial noun, in the objective case, and governed 
by the preposition 'by, 5 according to Rule X. 

e Books 5 is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, 
neuter gender, objective case, and governed by the active participle 
'sending-, 5 according to Rule XIV. 

Exercises in Syntax continued. 
" James derives pleasure from in improving her taste in corn- 
reading useful books." position." 
"John is above doing a mean ac- " I am discouraged from under- 

tion. 55 taking this study. 55 

"Parents are pleased at seeing "A good instructor takes no de- 

the progress of their children." light in punishing/' 
" Mary's reading has been useful 

Note VIII.— The present participle, when used as a noun, often 
has the definite article the before it, and the preposition of after it; as, 
" By the observing of truth, you will command respect,''* With 
equal propriety, however, it may be said, "By obsening truth, 5> &c. 
omitting both the article and the preposition. If we use the article 
without the preposition, or the preposition without the article, the 
expression will appear awkward : hence, 

Q, " Beatinn John." Will you Q, Will you parse the rest of the 

parse -John'? 560. 'Beating"? 558. exercises in this lesson? 

Q,. Will you parse the remaining Q. '* By sending those books." — - 

exercises in the lesson above? Will you parse 'sending'? 562. 

Q* " Is fighting." Will you parse 'books'? 562. 

'fighting'? 561. Why is .'fighting' Q,. Will you parse the remaining 

called a participial noun? Ans. exercises in this lesson? 

Because it implies action like a part- Q. From what are present partict- 

iciple, and ha9, also, the sense of a pies formed? 497. 

noun. Q,. How may participles in mg be 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The definite article the should be used before, and the pre- 
position of after, participial nouns; or they should both be 
omitted. 

EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" By the observing these rules l< In the regarding his interests 

he will avoid mistakes.'' he neglected the public affairs." 

" He prepared them for the event " He was sent to prepare the way 

by the sending to them proper by preaching of repentance. " 

information." " Keeping of one day inseven(l) 

* c In writing of his letter he made is required of Christians. 55 
some mistakes." 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" William calls George." " John will be punished for his 

iC John's father will reward his insolence." 

industry." " We may improve under our in- 

" George's father's carriage pass- structor if we choose.'' 

ed the tavern." cc He who would excel in learn- 

cc If William return, he will be ing, must be attentive to his 

disappointed." books. 5 ' 

" John has beaten his little broth- il She begins to improve. '' 

er most shamefully. 5 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

563. Will you compose a sentence containing an active-transitive 
verb! One, containing a neuter verb] One, containing a passive verb] 
One, expressing the same sense as the last in an active form? Will 
you compose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood] One, 
in the subjunctive mood] One in the imperative mood] One, in the 
infinitive mood] One, having an adjective in the superlative degree] 
One, having the article an correctly used before a vowel] One, hav- 
ing an adjective in the positive degree that has in itself a superlative 
signification] One, containing the relative whose? One, containing 
which? One, with what used as a compound pronoun] One, having 
who used as an interrogative pronoun] One, having a verb in the sub- 
junctive mood, common form! 

Will you construct one or more sentences, which will make sense, 
with the word truth contained in them] One, with the word icisdom? 
contained in it] One, with the word knowledge? One, with the word 
learning? One, with the word science? 

Will ycu construct a sentence about prudence? One about history? 
One, or more on the following subjects, namely, geography, garden- 
ing, farms, orchards? 

Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make 

sense, namely, " Industry health"] " By — we acquire "] 

u In youth characters "] "Arithmetic business"] 

cc Washington live hearts of his "] 

distinguished from other parts of Q. Will you now parse and cor- 

speech of the same termination? 500. rcct the exercises under Note VIII? 

Q. Instead of saying, " By the ob- Q,. Will you parse the promiscu- 

serving these rules,'' whatshould I ous exercises in Syntax? Next take 

say? Why? Note VIII. those to be written. 

1. 'Seven' is a numeral adjective, belonging to days, understood, by Note I. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 93 

flXLJX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

564. The verbs have, be, will and do, when they are unconnected 
with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, 
but principal verbs: as, " We have enough;" " I am grateful;" " He 
wills it to be so;" " They do as they please." In this view, they also 
have their auxiliaries: as, " I shall have enough;" " I will be grate- 
ful," &c. f n , .„ , 

565. The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from 

the following account of them. t ■ 

566. Do and did mark the action itself, or the time ot it, with 
greater energy and positiveness; as, " I do speak truth;" " I did 
respect him;" " Here am I, for thou didst call me." They are of 
great use in negative(l) sentences; as, "I do not fear; " 1 did not 
write." They are almost universally employed in asking questions; 
as, "Does he learnl" "Did he not write!" They sometimes also 
supply (2) the place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in 
the same, or a subsequent sentence unnecessary; as, "You attend not 
to your studies as he does;" (i. e. as he attends, &c.) "I shall 
come if I can; but if I do not, please to excuse me;" (i. e. if I come 
not." ,., r ■_ . 

567. May and might express the possibility or liberty ol doing a 
thing; can and could, the power; as, " It may rain; 5 ' " I may write 
or read;" " He might have improved more than he has; " He can 
write much better than he could last year." 

568. Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes neces- 
sity; as, " We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and we 
must not prevaricate. "(3) . ^ ... 

569. Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimaies(4; 
resolution and promising in the second and third person, only lore- 
tels; as, (( I will reward the good, and will punish the wicked; 
Cf We will remember benefits, and be grateful; ' c< Thou wilt, or he 
will, repent of that folly;" « You or they will have a pleasant walk. 

570. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; in 
the second and third persons", promises, commands, or threatens; as, 
"I shall go abroad;' 5 "We shall dine at home; 5 « Thou shaft, or 
vou shall, inherit the land;" " Ye shall do justice, and love mercy; 
<< They shall account for their misconduct." The following passage 
is not translated^) according to the distinct and proper meanings ol 
the words shall and will: " Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me 
all the days of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the LoroMor- 

1TXLIX. Which are the auxiliary in sentences? 566. Give an exam- 
verbs? 512. pie. 566 m 

Q. What is an auxiliary verb? 511. Q. Will you cnve an example in 

a. What a principal one?* which the repetition of tneprinc.- 

Q,. When are 'have' 'be' 'will' and pal verb is unnecessary? 5bo. trive 

Mo* principal verbs? 564. Give an an example. . 

example of each. 564. a. What do 'may; and .night 

Gl. What effect have 'do' and 'did' express? 567. What is the use of 

'must' 5 563. 



1. Denying. 2. To fill up.. 3. To shun the truth. 4. Shows. 5. Expresses* 
* See question to 197. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ever;" it ought to be, " WiU follow me," and " I shall dwell. "— 
The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried out, 
" I im/Z be drowned, nobody shall help me;" made a sad misappli- 
cation of these auxiliaries. 

571. These observations respecting the import(T) of the verbs will 
and shall, must be understood of explicative sentences; ior when the 
sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, (8) fur the most part, takes 
place: thus, "lshattgo; you will go;' express event(9) only: but, "will 
you got" imports intention; and, " shall I go!" refers to the will of 
another. But. " He shall go," and shall he go]" both imply will; 
expressing or referring to a command. 

572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning 
of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes(lO) some alteration; as the 
learners will readily perceive by a few examples: " He shall pro- 
ceed," " If he shall proceed," " You shall consent," " If you shall 
consent." These auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged (11) in the 
indicative and subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning of the 
auxiliary; as, " He will not return," " If he shall not return;" fC He 
shall not return," " If he will not return." 

573. Would, primarily(12) denotes inclination of will; and should, 
obligation: but they both vary their import, and are often used to 
express simple event. 

574. Do and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, according 
to the following 

SYNOPSIS. 

Indicative Mood. 

Prcs. 1 do. I have. 

Imp. I did. I had. 

Perf. I have done. I have had. 

PI up. I had done. I had had. 

1 Fut. I shall or will do. I shall or will have. 

2 Pat. I shall have done. I shall have had. 

575. Potential Mood. 

Prcs. I may or can do. I may or can have. 

Imp. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would or should 

should do. have. 

Pcrf. I may or can have done. I may or can have had. 

Plup.l might, could, would or I might, could, would or should have 

should have done. had. 

Q,. What does 'will,' intimate in life; and I will dwell in the house of 

the first person singular? plural? 569. the Lord forever?" 570. 

Give an example. 509. In the sec- Q,. la what consists the mistake in 

ond and third persons? 569. Give the expression which the foreigner 

an example. 569. made when he fell into the Thames? 

Q. What does 'shall' intimate in 570. 

the first person? 570. Give an ex- Q, What do 'shall' and 'will' de- 

ample. 570. note in interrogative sentences; as, 

(i. In what particular is the trans- " Shall 1 go"? " Will you go"? 571. 

lation of the following passage incor- Q,. What do 'would' and 'should' 

rect ? " Surely goodness and mercy primarily denote? 573. 
shall follow me all the days of my 

7. Meaning. 8. Contrary. 9. What happens. 10. Suffers. 11. To ex- 
change one for the other. 12. In the first place. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 95 



576. Subjunctive Mood. 

Prcs. 1. If I do. Ifl have, &c. 

577. Infinitive Mood. 
Pres. To do. To have. 
Per/. To have done. To have had. 

578. Participles. 
Prcs. Doing. Having 
Perf. Done. Had. 
Comp. Perf. Having done. Having had. 



flL. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some 
of the moods and tenses. 

530. The following are the principal ones. 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

May, Might, Wanting, 

Can. Could, 

Will, Would, 

Shall, Should, 

Must, Must, 

Ought Ought, 

Quoth, 

581. Of these, 'ought' and 'must/ you perceive, are not varied. 

582. 'Ought 5 and 'quoth 5 are always used as principal verbs. 
'Ought 5 is the same in the imperfect tense as in the present, and is 
always followed by an infinitive: as, " He ought to study/ 5 "He 
ought to have read.'' In this last example 'ought 5 is in the imper- 
fect, and in the first it is in the present. This we determine by the 
infinitive, which follows the verb, thus: when the present infinitive 
follows 'ought, 5 'ought, 5 is in the present tense; but when the perfect 
infinitive follows it, it is in the imperfect tense. 

5S3. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and in- 
transitive, or neuter signification. Thus, to flatten, when it signifies 
to make even or level, is an active-transitive verb, but when it signifies 
to grow dull or insipid, it is an intransitive verb. 

584. A neuter or intransitive verb, by the addition of a preposi- 
tion, may become a compound active-transitive verb; as 'to smile 5 is 

Q,. Will you repeat the synopsis of Q. Which are not varied? 581. 

'do' through all the moods? of •have?' Q,. How are 'ought' and 'quoth' 

Q. Will you conjugate 'do' in the always used? 582. 

present tense ? 'Have' in the perfect Q,. How can you tell when'ought T 

tense? is in the present tense? 582. 

Q,. What is the perfect paiticiple Q. When is it in the imperfect 

of 'do'? of * have'? the compound tense? 582. Give an example of each 

perfect of 'do'? of 'have'? tense. 582. 

VL. What are defective verbs? Q,. When is 'to flatten' transitive, 

579. and when intransitive? 583. 

Q.Will you mention the princi- Q,. How then are verbs often used? 

pal ones with their imperfect tenses? 583. 
580. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

intransitive; it cannot therefore be followed by an objective case, nor 
be changed into the passive form. We cannot say "She smiled 
him," or " He was smiled,'' but we say very properly, " She smiled 
on him," " He was smiled on by her." 

5S5. Prepositions affect the meaning of verbs in different ways. 
'To cast 5 means Ho throw'; as " He cast a stone at her": " To cast 
up," however means 'to compute'; as, " He casts up his accounts. " 
In all instances in which the preposition follows the verb, and modi- 
fies its meaning, it should be considered a part of the verb and be so 
treated in parsing. 

586. There are some verbs, which, although they admit an objec- 
tive case after them, still do not indicate the least degree of action; 
as, " I resemble my father." This seeming inconsistency may be 
easily reconciled by reflecting that in all such cases, the verb has a 
direct reference to its object. Of this nature, are the verbs retain, 
resemble, own, have, &c. 

587. Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, 
and are thence called neuter passive verbs; as, " John goes home to- 
night," here "goes' is an intransitive verb; but in the sentence, "John 
is gone home," 'is gone' is a neuter passive verb. Again, in the 
phrase, "William comes" 'comes' is an intransitive verb, and in the 
phrase, " William is come," 'is come' is a neuter passive verb. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" William had many advantages " He has had many precious op- 

before he improved them in a portunities." 

proper manner." " John will do as his instructor 

" A good scholar will not do directs." 

what(l) is forbidden by his in- lt He may have had time." 

structor. ' 

2. 

" I own this book." " I cannot believe him." 

" Charles resembles his parents." " His father does not hesitate to 

"He retains his place." trust him." 

3. 

"The farmer casts seed into the " She smiles sweetly." 

ground." " She smiled on John." 

" The merchant casts up his ac- " John was smiled on by fortune 

counts often." in every undertaking." 

Q, How can an intransitive verb Q,. Is 'resemble,' strictly speaking, 

become transitive? 584. Give an ex* a transitive verb? 586. 

ample. 584. Q. Why does it admit an object 

Q. What does 'to cast' mean? afier it? 586. 

585. Q,. There are several verbs of this 

Q. Meaning of " to cast up"? 585. class, will you name some of them? 

Q,. When may the preposition be 586. 

reckoned a part of the verb? 585. Q,. What is a neuter passive verb? 

Q, How should it be considered 587. Give an example. 587. 

>n parsing* 585. Q. Will you now parse the next 

lessons? 

1. 'What' stands for l# that which" or " the thins which." Apply Rules 
V. and VI. 



ADVERBS, 97 

4. 
ff The instructor has come." cc Susan has gone." 

" Our instructor has come." "Mary was gone before her mo- 

" William has gone to visit his ther came." 

parents." " When the)* came to town they 

made many purchases." 



ULI. OF ADVERBS. 

588. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs, to qualify them. 

589. Expressions like the following, namely, a few days ago, long*" 
since, none at all, at length, in vain, by no means, a great deal, 
&c, are denominated adverbial phrases, when they are used to qual- 
ify verbs or participles, by expressing the manner, time or degree of 
action. 

590. The definite article the is frequently placed before adverbs of 
the comparative and superlative degrees to give the expression more 
force; as, " The more he walks the belter he feels.' 3 When the ar- 
ticle is used in this sense, both the article and adverb may be reck- 
oned an adverbial phrase, and be so considered in parsing. 

591. You have doubtless noticed that most words ending in ly, are 
adverbs. The reason of this is that ly is a contraction of the adverb 
like; thus, from 'manlike', we form 'manly': 'gentlemanly' is a con- 
traction of 'gentlemanlike.' Hence, 

592. If you meet with a word ending in ly, implying in its signifi- 
cation the idea of 'like,' you may conclude at once that it is an 
adverb . 

RULE IX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, 
and other adverbs. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

fc In vain we look for perfect happiness.' 5 

ULI. Q,. What is the meaning in their comparison, will you name 

of 'adverb"? 228. one? 237. 

Q,. To what is the adverb joined? Q, Will you name two or three 

588. ad verbid 1 phrases? 589. 

Q. For what purpose? 588. Q. When are they to be consider- 
ed. How many different parts of ed adverbial phrases? 589. 

speech does it qualify? 588. Q,. Is the article 'the' ever joined 

Q,. Which are they? 588. to an adverb? 590. For what pur- 

Q. What is the definition of an pose? 590. 

adverb? 588. Q,. What do the article and ad- 

Q,. Are adverbs compared?* verb form ill such cases? 590. 

Q,. Will you compare 'wisely'? Q,. How is it to be considered in 

235. 'soon'? 234. parsing? 590. ■ 

Q,. How are they compared? 236. Q,. How came most words ending 

Q,. Will you compare the adverbs in ly to be consideied adverbs? 591. 

'much'? 'well'? 'bad'? 'ill'? 237. Give on example. 591. 

Q. Some adverbs are not regular Q,. How can we determine be- 



* See question to 234. 
I 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

593. " In vain 5 ' is an adverbial phrase and qualifies 'look' accord- 
ing to Rule IX. 

Exercises in syntax, continued. 
" John has come again, but Wil- " William acted very nobly." 



liam has not. ; 

" Very many persons fail of hap- 
piness." 

" A vast many evils are incident 
to man in his wearisome jour- 
ney through life." 

cc The instructress has at length 
arrived." 



I will by no means consent." 
" He wrote a long letter a few r 

days ago."(l) 
" John was writing carelessly." 
" I have admonished her once and 

again." 
" A few days ago there was much 

excitement in town." 



Note IX. — To qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and oth- 
er adverbs, we should use adverbs; but to qualify nouns we 
should use adjectives. 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 



<c William writes good."* 
" Susan studies diligent." 
Ci He speaks fluently and reasons 

correct." 
Cf John writes tolerable well but 

readsf miserable." 
cf Harriet dresses neat." 

SENTENCES TO 

594. Will you write down a sentence containing a compound active- 
transitive verb! One, having a neuter-passive verb] 

Will you compose two or more sentences about a lion? Two, or 
more, about sheep? Two, or more, about a cow? One, about an ox? 
One, about a dog? One, about a cat? One, about Africans? One, 
about Indians? One, about fishes? One, about steam-boat disasters? 
One, about stage accidents' 1 . 



" On conditions suitably to his 

rank. 5 ' 
" He speaks correct." 
"Mary sings admirable." 
c * He writes elegant." 
" He reads and spells very bad." 

BE WRITTEN. 



flLII. OF PREPOSITIONS. 

595. Prepositions are used to connect words, and to show 
the relation between them. 



tween words ending in ly whether 
or not they are adveibs? 592. 

Q,. What rule do you apply when 
you parse an adverb? IX. 

Q. " In vain we look." Will you 
parse 'in vain'? 593. 

Q. Will you next parse the re- 
maining exercises? 

Q,. When should we use adverbs? 
Note IX. 



Q,. When adjectives? Note IX. 

Q,. "William writes good." Where- 
in is this sentence incorrect?* 

Q,. Will you now parse and cor- 
rect the remaining exercises? 

ULII. Q. What is the meaning 
of 'preposition'? 244. 

Q. What are prepositions? 595. 

Q,. Will you repeat several from 
the list? 247. 



1. A few days ago — an adverbial phrase. 

* For the adjective 'good' we should use the adverb ' well' according to 
Note IX. 

t 'Reads' agrees with 'John' understood, and is therefore connected to 
'writes' by the conjunction 'but' agreeably to Rule XI. 



PREPOSITIONS. 99 

596. We not unfrequently meet with verbs compounded of a pre- 
position and verb; as, 'to uphold,' to 'invest/ 'to overlook/ and this 
composition sometimes gives a new sense to the verb ; as, 'to under- 
stand/ 'to ivithdr&w / But the preposition more frequently occurs 
after the verb, and separate from it; as, " to cast up, v " to fall on.'' 
The sense of the verb, in this case, is also materially affected by the 
preposition. 

597. Some of the prepositions have the force of conjunctions: as, 
c; After their prisons were thrown open/' &c. "Before I die." 
" They made haste to be prepared against their friends arrived." 
But if the noun time, which is understood, be added, they will lose 
their conjunctive form ; as, " After [the time when] their prisons/' 
&c. 

598. The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and severed 
others, sometimes appear to be adverbs and may be so considered ; 
as, " They had their reward soon after," " He died not long before ,' : 
" He dwells above /' but if the noun time or place be added they lose 
their adverbial form; as, " He died not long before/ 5 [that time] 
&c. 

599. There is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the correct use 
of the different prepositions : for illustration we will take the follow- 
ing sentences : " He walks with a staff by moonlight /' " He was 
taken by stratagem and killed with a sword. ' Put the one preposition 
for the other, and say, " He walks by a staff with moonlight/ 5 " He 
was taken with stratagem and killed by a sword/' and it. will appear 
that they differ in signification more than one, at first view, would be 
apt to imagine. 

RULE X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" John lives witkin his income. 55 

600. 'Within 5 is a preposition. 

'Income is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, objective case and governed by 'within according to 
Rule X. 

Q,. With what are verbs not un- these prepositions, and then repeat 

frequently compounded? 596. Give the phrase? 599. 
an example. 596. Q. Will you repeat the rule re- 

Q,. W 7 here is the preposition more specting the government of nouns by 

frequently placed? 596. Give an prepositions? X. 
example. 596. Q,. "John lives within (lis income. 

Q,. "Before I die." What part Will you parse 'within'? 600. 'in- 

of speech is 'before'? 597. How may come'? 600. 

it be converted into a preposition? Q,. Will you now take the remain- 

597. ing exercises to be parsed, after 

Q. Will you name three preposi- which, those to be written, 
tions which in many instances ap- Q,. What is a simple sentence? 

pear to be adverbs? 598. 253. Give an example. A corn- 

Q,. How may they be converted pound sentence? 256. Give an ex- 

into prepositions again? 598. ample. 

Q,. " He waiks with a staff by Q,. Why called compound? 254. 
moonlight." Will you transpose 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercises in Syntax, continued. 

" Thomas made his fortune by made the sun to shine by clay, 

industry." and the moon(l) to give light 

u Susan labors with her needle by night.' 5 

for a livelihood. " "Beneath the oak lie acorns in 

iC Respecting that affair there was great abundance. J> 

a controversy." "John who is at all times watch- 

" In six days God made the world, ful of his own interest, will at- 

and all things that are in it. He tend to that concern." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

601. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable preposi- 
tions to make sense ] " John was — the house when he was seized 
a fit." " The busy bee — summer provides food — the ap- 
proaching winter — the prudence — a rational being.' 5 

Will you supply the objects to the following ! " James was 

catching ." " He was beating ." " He supports ." 

Will you supply agents or nominative cases to the following? 
" was running. 5 " was dancing." 

Will you supply verbs in the following] '■' A dutiful child his 

parents." " Grammar us correctly." 

Will you compose two or more sentences about boys? One, about 
whales? One, about snakes? One, about foxes? One, about parents? 
One, about brothers? One, about sisters? One, about uncles? One, 
about aunts? 



ftLIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

602. A Conjunction is a word that is chiefly used to connect 
sentences, so as out of two or more sentences to make but 
one. 

603. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect 
sentences; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord." 

604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they appear to 
unite only words; as in the following sentence: " Duty and interest 
forbid vicious indulgences." " Wisdom or foUy governs us." Each 
of these forms of expression contains two sentences, namely, the first, 
a Duty forbids pernicious indulgences;" " Interest forbids vicious 
indulgences:" the second, " Wisdom governs us;" "Folly governs us:" 

HUH. Q, Meaning of 'conjunc- Q, Will you repeat the list of 

tion'? 257. them? 275. 

Q, What is a conjunction? 602. Q,. What is the rule for connecting 

Q,. Meaning of 'copulative'? 264. words by conjunctions? XT. 

Q. What is the use ot the copula- Q,. What other words, besides 

tive conjunction? 265. conjunctions and prepositions, con- 

Q,. Will you repeat the list of co- nect? 603. 

pulative conjunctions? 266. Q, Do conjunctions ever connect 

Q. What does 'disjunctive' signi- sentences when they appear to con- 

fy? 271. nect words only? 604. Give an ex- 

Q, What does the disjunctive con- ample. 604. 
junction connect? 274. 



1. The sense is " He made the nr>on." 'Moon' then is in the objective 
case, governed by 'made' .understood, and connected to 'sun' by Rule XI. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 101 

RULE XI. 

Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood 
and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same 
case. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

605. " William writes and ciphers." 

'And' is a copulative conjunction. , 

'Ciphers' is a regular active intransitive verb, from 'to cipher 
made in the indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, and 
agrees with 'William' understood, and is connected to 'writes by the 
conjunction 'and' agreeably to Rule XI. _ 

Exercises in Syntax, continued. 
" John ciphers rapidly, and reads not too volatile " 

correctly" « If he has promised, he should 

« If we contend about trifles, and act accordingly. 35 

violently maintain our opinions, « He denied that he circulated 

we shall gain but few friends." the report. 

" Though he is lively, yet he is 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

606 Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction if! 

One, containing and? As many sentences as there are conjunctions 

which follow; each sentence containing one! Although. Unless. 

For. Because. Therefore. Or. Neither. Nor. .,-*., 

Will you compose a sentence about Jackson! one, about Uay 5 
one, about Monroe? one, about Madison! 



flLIV. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

607. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of 
sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings of the 

SP 60S e We do not say, "Ah, I!" "Oh, If' but Ah, me! Oh me! 
using the objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here 
spoken of, you perceive, is of the first person: hence, 

Note X.— Pronouns of the first person are put in the objec- 
tive case, after the interjections Oh, O, Ah, &c. 

609. We say, "O thou persecutor!" "Oh ye hypocrites!" "0 thou 
who dwellest/' &c: hence, , 

Note XL— The interjections O, Oh, Ah, require the nomi- 
native case of pronouns in the second person. 

Q. " William writes and ciphers." ULIV. Q. What is the meaning of 

Will you parse 'and'? 605. 'CU 'interjection? 283. 

pliers'? 60o Q. What are interjections? 607. 

Q. Will you in the next place &. Will you repeat from the list 

take the exercises to be parsed and six interjections? 285. _ 

written, and dispose of them? Q. How may an interjection gen,. 

erally be known? 286. 

12 



102 ExNTGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

610. " xUi me! I must perish." 

'Ah' is an interjection. 

'Me' is a personal pronoun, oflhe first person singular, objective 
case, and governed by 'Ah,' agreeably to Note X. 

Exercizes in Syntax, continued. 
" O, thou!(l) who hast murdered deaf(3) to the calls of duty and 

thy friend." honor." 

" O, thou! who hearest prayer." "Oh! happy(4) us, surrounded 
" Ah me! must I endure all this.'' with so many blessings." 
"Ah! unhappy (2) thou, who art 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

611. Will you compose a sentence containing alas? one, contain- 
ing oh? one, about volcanoes? one, about lakes? one, about isl- 
andsl one, about Webster, the statesman] one, about a good scholar? 
one, about a poor scholar? one, about a gooo 1 instructor? 

1TLV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. 

612. Apposition, in grammar, signifies the putting of two nouns 
in the same case. 

613. When I say, "John the mechanic has come/' I am speaking 
of only one person; the two nouns, 'John 1 and 'mechanic,' both 
meaning or referring to the same person; consequently they are put, 
by apposition, in the same case : hence, 

RULE XV. 

When two or more nouns, or nouns and pro- 
nouns, signifying the same thing, come together, 
they are put, by apposition, in the same case. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

614. " Webster the statesman has left us." 
'Statesman' is a common noun, of the thud person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, nominative case, and put in apposition with 
'Webster,' by Rule XV. 



Q. 4 Ah me!' In what case is 'me'? 1TI/V. Q,. Meaning of 'apposi- 

610. tinuP 612. 

Q, What, rule or note applies to Q,. " John the mechanic." How 

'me'? X. many persons are here spoken of? — 

Q. 'O thou'' &c What note ap- 013 Should, then, the two nouns 

plit s to 'thou'? XI. 'John' and 'mechanic' be in the 

Q,. "Al> me!'' Will you paise same, or a different case? 613, 

'ah'? 'me'? 610 Q, What is the rule for this agree- 

Q,. Will you now take the remain- ment? AV. 

ing exercises to be parsed and writ- Q,. "Webster the statesman." 

ten? Will you parse 'statesman? 614. 

I. For 'thou,* apply Note XL 2. Agrees with 'thou' by Rule IV. 

3. Belongs to 'who' by Rule IV. 4. Apply Rule IV. 



EXERCISES. 



103 



Exercises in Syntax, continued. 
I. 



"John the Baptist was beheaded." 

" David, the thief, was appre- 
hended." 

"Johnson, the bookseller, has 
failed in business." 

" I consulted Williams, the law- 
yer. 5 ' 



' Cicero, the orator, flourished in 
the time of Cataline, the con- 
spirator." 

J I visit Thompson, the profes- 
sor, often." 

•John, the miller, died yester- 
day." 



' We will inspect the goods our- 
selves. 55 

' I, I am the man who committed 
the deed." 



" If John will not go, I will go 

myself."(l) 
" You yourself are in fault." 
" They themselves were mis- 
taken.' 5 

Remark 1. — For the same reason that one noun agrees with an- 
other in case, it agrees with it in number and person, also. 
"I, Alexander, by the grace of "We, the representatives of the 
God, emperor of all the Rus- people of these colonies, do 
sias, promulgate this law." make this declaration." 

Remark 2. — When one noun describes or qualifies another, the one 
so qualifying, becomes an adjective in sense, and may be so consid- 
ered in parsing. Accordingly, 'Tremont,' in the phrase, " Tremont 
House, 5 ' is an adjective belonging to 'House,' by Rule IV. 

615. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"The Marlborough Hotel is sit- "John Dobson was in town yes- 
uated in Washington-street." terdav.'' 

"The firm of Messrs. Williams "John Johnson, the blacksmith, 
& Sons, has failed." has broke his leg." 

Remark 3. — When the nouns which refer to the same person or 

thing are separated by verbs, as, " Webster is a statesman,' 5 it is 

customary to apply one or more of the following rules : 

1. Any verb may have the same case after it as before it, when 
both words refer to the same thing. 

2. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case af- 
ter it as that which next precedes it. 



Q,. Will you now parse the suc- 
ceeding exercises? 

Q,. " I will £ myself." Will you 
parse 'myself? 

Q,. How is the compound per- 
sonal pronoun termed in the singu- 
lar? 386. How in the plural? 386. 

Q. When one noun is put in ap- 
position with another, in what par- 
ticulars does it agree with it? Re- 
mark 1. 

Q,. Will you now parse the next 
exercises? 



Q. "Tremont House." What 
part of speech is 'Tremont'? Re- 
mark 2. How used here? Remark 
2. Will you parse it in fulP 

Q,. Will you now parse all the 
exercises under Remark 2? 

Q,. What is the rule or rules usu- 
ally given for parsing 'statesman,' 
in the phrase, " Webster is a states- 
man'? Remark 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 

Q,. In the same sentence do 'Web- 
ster' and 'statesman' both mean or 
refer to the same person? In what 



1. 'Myself is a compound personal pronoun, first person singular, nom- 
ative case, and put in apposition with 'I,' by Rule XV. 



jnative 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. Passive verbs of naming, judging, &c. have the same case after 
them as before them. 

4. Neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them. 

616. The foregoing rules, in the opinion of the writer, are wholly 
unnecessary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by 
requiring him to make a distinction in form, when there exists none 
in principle. In corroboration of this fact, Mr. Murray has the fol 
lowing remark : 

617. " By these examples it appears, that the verb to be has no 
government of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the 
cases; so that the two cases, which, in the construction of the sen- 
tence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike. Per- 
haps this subject will be more intelligible by observing that the words, 
in the cases preceding and following the verb to be, may be said to 
be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence " I under- 
stood it to be him," the words 'it' and £ him" are in apposition; that is, 
they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case. ,: 

618. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

1. 



" Webster is a statesman.' 3 
" John is a good scholar." 
ff William will become a distin- 
guished and valuable citizen." 
" She walks, a queen. (1)'* 
" He is styled Lord(l)Mayor(l) 

of London. " 
" He was named John. "(1) 
,f She moves, a queen. "(1) 

Ci Susan took her to be Mary. : '(l) 
"I took him to be John(2) Og- 

den." 
" We at first took it to be her, 

but afterwards were convinced 

that(3) it was not she." 
" He is not the person who(4) it 

seemed he was." 
"I understood it to be him(l) 



•Julius Caesar was that Roman 
general who conquered the 
Gauls." 

Tom struts a soldier. (1)" 
Will sneaks a scrivener." 
Claudius Nero, Caligula's un- 
cle, a senseless fellow, obtain- 
ed the kingdom." 



2. 



who is the son of Mr. (2) John 

Quincy(2) Adams. (1)" 
cc She is not now the person whom 

they represented her(l) to have 

been." 
" Whom (5) do you fancy them 

to be." 
Cf The professor was appointed 

tutor to the prince." 



case, then, ought they to be? 613. 
By what rule? XV. 

Q,. What office does the verb to 
be perform between cases? 617. 

Q,. Are the cases next before and 
after it, alike or different? 617. 

Q,. What is the opinion of Mr. 
Murray respecting the cases before 
and after to be? 617. 



Q,. How does he think 'it' and 
'him' should be parsed in the phrase 
" I understood it to be him"? 617. 

Q,. Will you now parse lesson 1, 
2 and 3? 

Q,. Is the verb to be always ex- 
pressed? Remark 3. Give an ex- 
ample. Remark 3. 

Q. Will you now take the sen- 



1. Apply Rule XV. 

2. Remark 2. 3. Conjunction. 4. 'Who' is put in apposition with 'if,.' 
by Rvlx XV. 5. 'Whom' agrees with 'them,' by Rule XV. 



NOUNS. 105 

Remark 3. — It not unfiequently happens that the connecting verb 
is omitted; as, cc They made him captain;" that is, to be captain. 

3. 
"They named him John." <f His countrymen crowned him 

" The soldiers made him general." emperor." 
" They proclaimed him king." 

619. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

"It might have been him,(l) but "She is the person who I un- 
there^is no proof(2) of it." derstood it to have been." 

" Though I was blamed, it could " Who do you think me to be?" 

not have been me." " Whom do men say that I ami" 

"I saw one who I took to be " Whom think ye that I ami " 
she." 

620. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence having nouns in apposition] One, 
having nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb] One, having a 
noun used as an adjective] 

Will you construct a sentence having in it the word who? One, 
having whose? One, having whom? One, having v:hat? One, hav- 
ing that? One, having man? One, ha^iig woman' 1 . One, having boy 11 . 
One, having girlsl One, having parents' 1 . 

flLVI. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 

621. To address signifies to speak to; as, "James, your father has 
come." The name of the person addressed must always be of the 
second person; and a noun in this situation, when it has no verb to 
agree with it, and is wholly disconnected with the rest of the sen- 
tence, is said to be independent. Hence, 

RULE XYI. 

When an address is made, the name of the per- 
son or thing addressed, is in the nominative case 
independent. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

622. "John, will you assist mel " 
'John' is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and nominative case independent, according to 
Rule XVI. 

tences to be parsed and corrected; Q,. Of what person is a noun 

also those to be written? when an address is made? 621. 

!ILVI. Q,. " James, your father Q,. When is a noun independent? 

has come." Which word here is 621. 

the name of the person addressed? Q. What is the rule for a noun 

Q. What is the meaning of 'to put independently? XVI. 

address'? 621. Q,. In the sentence, a John, will 

1. ; Him' should be 'he,' to agree with it. according to Rule XV. 

2. Apply Rule VI. 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercises in Syntax, continued, 
1. 
My lords, (1) the time has come 
when we must take some de- 



cisive measures. 
;( In making this appeal to you, 
my fellow-citizens, I rely en- 
tirely on your candor."' 

Ci Boys, attend to your lessons." 
" Girls, come into school." 
"Did you speak to me, girls!" 



cc Rufus, you must improve your 

time."' 

iC Gentlemen of the jury/' 
" James, (1) study(2) your book." 
" William, do try to get your les- 
son to-day." 

" My dear children, let no root of 
bitterness spring up among 
you." 



flLVII. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

623. In the phrase, cc The sun being risen, we set sail,'' the first 
clause of the sentence, namely, fC The sun being risen," has nothing 
to do with the remainder : the noun and participle may, therefore, 
when taken together, be said to be in the nominative case indepen- 
dent; but as we have already one case of this nature, we will, for the 
sake of making a distinction, call this (the noun joined with a parti- 
ciple) the nominative case absolute. Hence, 

RULE XVII. 

A noun or pronoun before a participle, and in- 
dependent of the rest of the sentence, is in the 
nominative case absolute. 



624. 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



C( The sun(3) being risen,(4) we 
departed." 

cc Egypt being conquered, Alex- 
ander returned to Syria." 

" Shame being lost, all virtue was 
lost. 

" The soldiers retreating, victory 
was lost." 



ic Wellington having returned to 
England, tranquillity was re- 
stored to France." 

" Bonaparte being conquered, the 
king was restored." 

" The conditions being observed, 
the bargain was a mutual ben- 
efit." 



you assist me," will you parse 
'John'? 622. 

Q. Will you next parse the rest 
of the exercises in this rule? 

HLVII. Q,. " The sun being 
risen, we set sail." How many 
words in this sentence, used inde- 
pendently, are taken together? G23. 



Q. Why is this case denominated 
the case absolute? 623. 

Q,. What is the rule for the case 
absolute? XVII. 

Q,. AVill you now take the pars- 
ing exercises under Rule XVII, 
and then the sentences to be cor- 
rected? 



1. Rule XVI. 2. Imperative mood and agrees with 'thou 1 or 'you,' un- 
derstood, by Rule VII. 
3. Rule XVII. 4. Rule XIH. 



MOOD. 



107 



625. SENTENCES TO BE 

cc Him(l) only excepted, who 

was a murderer." 
<c Her being dismissed, the restof 

the scholars behaved well." 



PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Him being destroyed, the re- 
maining robbers made their es- 
cape." 



flLVIII. OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Note XII. — A verb in the infinitive mood is sometimes 
placed independently; as, u To be frank, I own I have injured 
you." 

626. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

i( To confess the truth, I was in " To tell the plain truth, I per- 

fault." suaded him to stay.' 5 

" To display his power, he op- " To convince you, I will con tin - 
pressed his soldiers." ue here till you return. '' 

Note XIII. — The Infinitive Mood, or part of a sentence, is 
frequently put as the nominative case to a verb of the third per- 
son singular: as, " To play is pleasant." What is pleasant? 
" To play." — The infinitive Ho play,' is then the nominative 
case to 4s.' u Thou shalt not kill, is required of all men." 
"What is required? u Thou shalt not kill." The verb 'is re- 
quired' then agrees with " Thou shalt not kill," as its nomi- 
native. 

627. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



<f To excel requires much ex- 
ertion. 1 ' 

cf To abandon friends will sink 
a man's character." 

<c To practise religion is our 
duty." 



" Thou shalt not kill is the com- 
mand of God." 

" Honor thy father and thy 
mother is required of all men.'' 

cc To write a fair hand requires 
practice.'' 



Remark 1. c To excel,' is the nominative case to 'requires,' by 
Note XII. and 'requires' agrees with c to excel,' by Rule VII. In 
parsing 'Thou shalt not kill" 3 we first apply Rules VI. and VII. The 
whole phrase is considered the nominative to c is required,' by Note 
XIII. 



1FLVII1. Q. " To confess the 
truth, I was/' &c. How is 'to con- 
fess' used? Note XII. 

Q. What is the rule for it? Note 
XII. 

Q. What is the infinitive mood 
used for? 479. 

Q. How many tenses has it? 528. 

Q,. What is its usual sign? 517. 

Q. Will you now parse the exer- 
cises under Note XII? 

Q. " To play is pleasant." What 



is pleasant? What then is the nom- 
inative to <is? Note XIII. Rule? 
Note XIII. 

Q,. " Thou shalt not kill is requir- 
ed of all men." What is required? 

Q,. What is the nominative to 'is 
required'? Note XIII. Rule? Note 
XIII. 

Q. Will you now parse the re- 
maining exercises under this rule? 

Q, " Boys love to p!ay." What is 
the object of 'love? 627. Remark 2. 



1. When a noun is in the case absolute, it should be in the nominative 
*ase. 'Him' should therefore be 'he,' by Rule XVII. 



103 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, is frequently the 
object of a transitive verb ; as, " Boys love to play." What do boys 
love! < To play.' The object of 'love' then is 'to play. 5 "Children 
do not consider how much has been done for them by their parents." 
Consider what! " How much has been done for them by their parents;* ' 
including for the object of the verb the whole phrase in italics. 

Note XIV. — The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, may 
have an adjective or participle agreeing with it, when there is 
no noun, either expressed or understood, to which the adjective 
may belong. 

Q28. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

cc To see the sun is pleasant." " Defraud not thy neighbor, 5 ' is 

Cf To practice virtue will be binding on all." 
productive of happiness." " To do good to our enemies, 

"To be ridiculed is unpleas- is not natural to our hearts.' 5 
ant." 

Remarks. 'Pleasant' agrees with cc to see the sun,' 5 by Note XIV. 
'Binding' agrees with " Defraud not thy neighbor,' 5 by the game au- 
thority. To 'is, 5 apply Rule VIII. To 'sun, 5 Rule VIII. To the 
infinitive 'to see, 5 Note XIII. 

629 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose one or more sentences having an infinitive gov- 
erned by a participle! One, using an infinitive after a noun! One, 
describing the manner of playing balll One, or more, on the man- 
ner of playing tagl One, on the duty of children to mind their 
parents! One, or more, on industry 1 . One, on the business you in- 
tend to pursue for life ! 



flLIX. 

630. In the phrase Cf John and James are here,' 5 the sense is that 
<c John and James are both here ;" two persons are therefore spoken 
of which renders it necessary to use the plural verb 'are' to agree with 
two nouns which individually are singular ; hence, 
RULE XVIII. 

Two or more nouns, or pronouns, of the singular 
number, connected together by 'and,' either ex- 

Q,. Since we have a rule for 'to d. Will you now parse the rc- 

love,' as a verb, there is no necessity maining exercises under Note XIV. 

for considering it the object in pais- 1TLIX. Q,. When I say "John and 

ing ; what rule then will you apply James are here," of how many per- 

to it? XII. sons do I speak? 

Q,. Will you name an example in Q. Should vac then use 'is' or 

which there is part of a sentence 'are"? 630. 

used as the object of a verb? 627. Q,. What is the rule for 'are? 

Remark 2. XVIII. 

Q,. " To see the sun is 'pleasant.' Q,. Will you now^ parse the ex- 
Will you parse 'pleasant'? 'to see'? excises under Rule XVII 1? 
^the'? 'sun'? 'is? 



EXERCISES. 109 

pressed or understood, must have verbs, nouns, and 
pronouns, agreeing with them in the plural number. 

631. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" William and James run." " John and Joseph can get their 

"Mary and Harriet study, and lessons." 
they will therefore excel." " Time and tide wait for no 

" You and I are in fault." man." 

"John and Thomas say they cc My coat and pantaloons were 
intend to study Latin." made by Watson." 

Remarks. 'William' is one of the nominatives to the verb 'run.' 
'James' is in the nominative case to the verb 'run,' and is connected 
with the noun 'James, 5 bv Rule XI. 'Run' agrees with James by 
Rule XVIII. 

632. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

ec Mary and her cousin has " The farmer and his son is in 
come." town.'' 

"You and I makes progress in " Susan and her sister is deceit- 
our studies." ful." 

"Life and health is both un- " William and John both writes 
certain." a good hand." 

Remarks. For 'has come' we should read 'have come,' that the 
verb may be plural, when it has two nominatives connected by 'and' 
according to Rule XVIII. 

Exception 1. When 'and' connects two or more nouns in the sin- 
gular, which refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be sin- 
gular; as, " Pliny the philosopher and naturalist has greatly enriched 
science." 

633. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" That superficial scholar and "In that house live a great and 
critic have given new evidence of distinguished scholar and states- 
his misguided judgment." man." 

"There go a benevolent man "Mr. Cooper, the sailor and 
and scholar." novelist, visit La Fayette, the 

patriot and philanthropist.'' 

Exception 2. When two or more nouns in the singular, connected 
by 'and,' have 'each' or 'every' joined with them, the verb must be 
in the singular number ; as, " Every person, every house, and every 
blade of grass, was destroyed. 5, 

634. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Every man, and every wo- " Each man, and each woman, 

man, and every child, were taken. 5 ' were particularly alluded to in the 

"Every tree, stick and twig, report of the affair." 
were consumed." 

Q,. " William and James run." Q,. "Pliny the philosopner and 

Will you parse 'William' in full? naturalist has greatly enriched 

'and'? 'James'? 'run'? science." Why should we use 'has' 

Q. Will you parse the next ex- in this sentence instead of 'have'? 

ercises? Exception 1. 

Q,. "Mary and her cousin has Q,. "That superficial scholar and 

come." Why is this incorrect? 632. critic have -come." Why is 'have 

Q,. Will you parse the succeeding come' incorrect? Exception 1. 



exercises? 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remarks. 'Were,' in the first of these examples, should be chang- 
ed for f was/ because reference is had to each person individually 
considered, which, in respect to the verb, is the same in effect as if 
one person only was spoken of. 

Note XV. — 'Every' is sometimes associated with a plural 
noun, in which case the verb must be singular ; as, " Every 
hundred years constitutes a century." 

635. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

Cf Every twenty- four hours af- " Every four years give us 
ford us the vicissitudes of day another day to the ordinary nura- 
and night.'' ber of days in a year.'' 

Remark. c Afford/ in the example above, is a violation of the 
note : it should be 'affords, 55 in the singular number. The reason 
of this is, that " every twenty four hours," signifies a single period of 
time, and is, therefore, in reality singular. 

Note XVI. — A verb in the plural will agree with a col- 
lective noun in the singular, when a part only, of the individ- 
uals are meant; as, ie The council were divided in their senti- 
ments." When the noun expresses the idea of unity, the verb 
should be singular; as, " The council was composed wholly of 
farmers." 

In the foregoing example, we use the plural verb c were divided/ 
because we refer to the individuals composing the council; but if no 
allusion of this sort had been made, and we had spoken of it as one 
entire body, we should have used the singular verb according to the 
common rule; as, iC The council is composed wholly of farmers.'' 

Remarks. We apply to 'council,' in the first example, Note XVI; 
to 'were divided,' the same note, and to 'council,' and 'was compo- 
sed,' in the second example, Rules VI and VII. 

636. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

cc The council were divided in " My people do not consider." 

their sentiments." " The multitude eagerly pursue 

cc A part of the men were mur- pleasure as their chief good." 
dered." 



&. What is the rule for 'has come'? Q. Will you correct and parse the 

Exception]. | other example? 

Q,. Will you correct and parse the Q,. " The council were divided/' 

remaining exercises? Why not 'was'? Note XVI. Rule? 

Q,. In the first example under Ex- Note XVI. 

ample 2, why use 'was' rather than Q. When is a noun called 'collec- 

'were'? Exception 2. tive? 306. 

Q. Will you parse the remaining Q,. In what circumstances would 

exercises under this exception, after it be proper to use the singular verb? 

having corrected them? Note XVI. Give an example. 

Q. ''Every twenty-four hours," Q. How do you parse 'council'. > 

constitutes what, one period of time Note XVI. 'Were divided'? Note 

or more? XVI. 'Was composed' in the second 

Q,. W r hat is wrong then in the ex- example? Note XVI. 

ample? 635. Q,. Will you now parse and cor- 

Q,. What is the rule for this? Note rect the remaining exercises under 

-XV. this note? 



EXERCISES. 



Ill 



637. SENTENCES TO BE 

" My people doth not consider." 
<c The people rejoices in that 

which should give it sorrow." 
" The multitude rushes to certain 

destruction." 



PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" The committee was divided in 
their sentiments and has refer- 
red the business to a general 
meeting." 



LX. 

638. Negative means denying; and affirmative, asserting or declar- 
ing positively. A sentence in which something is denied is a negative 
one, and a sentence in which something is affirmed or positively as- 
serted, is an affirmative one. " Vice degrades us/' is an affirmative 
sentence, and " Labor does not injure us/' is a negative one. Not, 
nothing, none at all, by no means, no, in no wise, neither, no, none, 
&c. are negative terms. 

The phrase, " I have nothing," has one negative and means (t I 
have not any thing." The phrase^ " I have not nothing,'' cannot 
mean the same as " I have nothing/' but must mean, on the contrary, 
<c I have something." This last you perceive is an affirmative sen- 
tence and signifies the same as the foregoing one, " I have not noth- 
ing. 5 ' Two negatives, therefore, are equal to an affirmative." 
Hence, 

RULE XIX. 

Two negatives in the same sentence, are equiv- 
alent to an affirmative. 

639. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

i( He spends all the day in idle- fC Be(l) honest nor(2) take(3) 

no shape nor semblance of dis- 
guise." 

He is so(4) indolent that he 
will not do nothing:." 



ness, and I cannot prevail on 
him to do nothing." 
Ci He cannot get no employment 
in town. 5 ' 



1FLX. Q,. What is the meaning 
of 'negative'? 638. 'affirmative'? 638. 

Q,. What is a negative sentence? 
633. An affirmative one? 638. Give 
an example of each. 

Q. Will you name a few negative 
terms.? 638. 

Q,. How many negatives ha3 the 
phrase " 1 have nothing," and what 
does it mean ? 638. 

Q,. Meaning of " I have not noth- 
ing?" 638. 

Q,. How many negatives has it? 

Q. What kind of a sentence is " I 
have something"? 638. 

Q What is " I have nothing,' 1 
equal to, in expression? 638. 

Q. What then can we say of two 
negatives? Rule XIX. 



Q. Will you next take the exerci- 
ses under Rule XIX ? 

Q,. What is a noun? 4. article? 
350. adjective? 363. pronoun? 381. 
verb? 438. participle. ? 498. adverb? 
588. preposition? 595. conjunction? 
602. interjection ? 607. common noun ? 
301. proper nounr' 302. definite ar- 
ticle? 83. indefinite article? 80. 

Q,. How many properties in gram- 
mar have nouns? 308. How many 
have verbs?* 

Q,. How many participles are 
there?; What are they? 500, 502, 
504. 

Q,. When is a verb active? 439. 

Q,. When transitive? 440. When 



* Mood, tense, number, and person, i Thme, 



112 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



" I did not say nothing." 
" He cannot do nothing accepta- 
ble to John." 



" I cannot by no means consent." 
" I shall not take no interest in 
the affair.'' 
<f I never studied no grammar." 

Remarks. For 'nothing' in the above examples, read 'anything,' 
in accordance with Rule XIX. 

(1.) 'Be' agrees with 'thou' or 'you' understood by Rule VII. (2.) 
For 'nor,' read 'and.' (3.) 'Take 5 is in the imperative mood and 
agrees with 'thou' or 'you' understood, and is therefore connected to 
'be,' according to Rule XI. (4.) Adverb. 

640. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" Deep rivers move with silent " Power discovers the disposi- 
majesty ; and small brooks are tionofman." 



noisy. 

" Deeds are fruits ; words are 
but leaves." 

"It is a bad horse indeed that 
will not carry his own provender." 

" The hog never looks up to 
him who threshes down the 
acorns.' 5 

" Add not trouble to the grief- 
worn heart." 

"If the counsel be good it is 
no matter who gives it. 5 

" By other's faults wise men 
correct their own.' 5 

" When the world says you are 
wise and good ask yourself if it 
be true. 5 

" Sin and misery are constant 
companions.' 5 

641. SENTENCES TO 



" Quarrels are easily begun but 
with difficulty ended.' 

" Force without forecast is of 
little worth." 

" Rome was not built in one 
day." 

" In youth and strength think 
of old age and weakness." 

"All are not saints who go to 
church.'' 

"To say well is good, but to 
do well is better.' 5 

" No fear should deter us from 
doing good. 5 ' 

" Pride, perceiving humility hon- 
orable often borrows her cloak." 

" Say what is well but do what 
is better." 



BE WRITTEN. 

describing; the 



business of an in- 



Will you compose one sentence 
structor? One, the business of a doctor? One, the business of a law- 
yer? One, of a dentist? One, of a surgeon? One, of a farmer? One, 
of a blacksmith? One, of a miller? One, of a merchant? One, of a 
grocer' 1 . One, of an apothecary' 1 . One, of a legislator? One, of a judge? 
One, of a colonel? One, of a captain! One, of a general! One of an 
agent in a factory? One, of the directors of a bank? 



intransitive? 441. How may it be 
known? 154. 

Q. Will you decline T? 'thou'? 
'he'? 'she 'it'? 127. 

Q. Of what person is T? any'? 
'us'? 'their'? 'you'? 127. 

Q,. What is mood? 451. the indic- 
ative? 452. potential? 453. subjunc- 
tive? 456. infinitive? 479. impera- 



tive? 472. How many tenses has 
each mood? 525. What are the signs 
of the present tense? 519. imperfect? 
520. perfect? 521. pluperfeet? 522. 
1. Future? 523. 2. Future? 524. 

Q,. Will you now parse the pro- 
miscuous exercises? 

Q,. Will you next take the senten- 
ces to be written? 



EXERCISES. 



113 



1FLXI. 

642. When I say " He taught me grammar," I mean, Cf He taught 
grammar to me;'' 'Grammar' then is the object of the verb, and 'me' 
is governed by the preposition to, understood. In the first example 
we have two objective cases after the verb c teach,' and since there 
are many instances like the preceding, in which transitive verbs are 
followed by two objective cases; Hence the following 

RULE XX. 

Two objective cases, the one of a person and 
the other of a 

of asking, teaching, giving, &x 
being understood. 

" He taught me grammar.'' 
Remark 1. In the foregoing example 'me* and 'grammar' are both 
governed by 'taught,' according to Rule XX. 

. 643. EXAMPLES IN SYNTAX. 



thing, may follow transitive verbs, 

a preposition 



c He taught me grammar. 55 

■ William asked me some ques- 
tions. 5 

: My mother wrote me a precious 
letter in the month of May. 5 ' 

: They allowed him his seat in 
Congress.' 5 

' John gave me a'detailed account 
of the whole transaction. 5 ' 



" My instructor gave me a valua- 
ble book for my attention to 
study." 

" She forbade him the presence 
of the emperor." 

" The French denied him the 
privilege of an American citi- 
zen. 5 ' 



flLXIL 

644. The natural construction of the passive voice requires the ob- 
ject of the active verb, to become the nominative to the passive verb; 
as, "He taught me grammar;" * f Grammar was taught me." In 
some few instances, just the reverse takes place; as, " I was taught 
grammar;'' here the object 'grammar, 3 is placed after the verb; we 
therefore derive the following 



1TLX1I. Q. " He taught me 
grammar." What does this mean? 
642. What then is the object of the 
verb, and by what is 'grammar' gov- 
erned.^ 642. By what is 'me' govern- 
ed? 642. 

Q. How many objective cases 
then follow the verb 'taught'? 642. 

Q,. What rule is given for cases 
of this description? XX. 

K2 



Q,. By what are <me' and 'gram- 
mar' governed? 642. Remark 1. 

Q,. Will you next parse the Ex- 
ercises under Rule XX? 

HLXII. Q. What is the natural 
construction of the passive voice in 
reference to the object? 644. Give an 
example. 644. Give an example 
where the reverse takes place. 644, 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RUJLE XXI. 

An objective case may follow passive verbs of 
asking, teaching, and some others ; as, " I was 
taught grammar." 

#5* Apply to T Rule VI.; to c was taught,' Rule VII. ; to 
'grammar,' Rule XXI. 

645. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"John taught me music." " I was taught grammar." 

" Music was taught me by John." "The presence of the emperor 

ic A question was asked we.'' was forbidden Theresa." 

" Theresa was forbidden the " Reading is taught in almost ev- 

presence of the emperor." ery school." 

tLXIII. 

646. When I say, "He came home last May," the sense is, when 
fully expressed, " He came to his home in last May." "John con- 
tinued four years at the university;' 5 that is, "during four years." 
" The horse ran a mile;" that is, " over the space of a mile." "John 
went that way;" that is, over that way." From these facts we de- 
rive the following : 

RULE xxir. 

Home, and nouns signifying which ivay, how far, 

hoiv long, or time when, &c. are in the objective 

case, a preposition being understood. 

647. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"He came home last May." " Susan rides out every day." 

"John continued four years at " William sleeps comfortably all 

the university." night." 

" John went home once a month." " John was absent from home six 
" Charles studies six hours every years." 

day." "James lived six years at Boston, 

" John rode that way." twelve years at Dedham." 

" He ran a mile." 

Note XVII. — After the words like and unlike, the preposi- 
tion to or unto is frequently understood; as, " He is like his 
father;" that is, " like to his father." " She is unlike her sis- 
ter;" that is, " unlike to her sister." 

Q,. Where is the object placed? May." What does this mean when 

644. more fully expressed? 646. Will you 

Q,. " I was taught grammar." parse 'home'? 'May'? 

Will you parse 4'? 'was taught'? Q,. "John was four years at the 

'grammar'? university.'' " The horse ran a 

Q. Will you next take the exer- mile." What do these sentences 

jcises under Rule XXI? mean when fully expressed? 

f LX1II. Q,. " He came home last 



EXERCISES. 



115 



643. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" He is like his brother. " " John behaves like a man in a 

" William, unlike his father, falsi- violent rage." 

fled his word." " He is unlike any other mortal." 

Note XVJII. — Nouns signifying duration, extension, quan- 
tity, quality or valuation, are in the objective case, without any 
governing word. The following are examples: 
"The Atlantic ocean is three " The cart weighs fifteen hundred 



thousand miles(l) wide." 5 
" Williams knife is worth eight- 
een pence, or twenty-five 

cents." 
" For thaf article, which is richly 

worth a * dollar, (2) we cannot 

always get fifty cents." 
" The chasm is fifty feet broad." 

Remarks. 1. The noun 'miles' 
XVIII. 2. Apply Note XVIII. _ 

Note XIX. — The conjunction as, after such, many^ and 
same, is generally considered a relative pronoun; as in the fol- 
lowing examples: 



pounds. 

' The wall which separates China 
from Tartary, commonly called 
the great Chinese wall, is fif- 
teen hundred miles long, and 
from twenty to thirty feet in 
height. 5 ' 



is governed according to Note 



" He took such books as pleased 
him." 

" He exhibited the same course 
of conduct as was once before 
exhibited on the same occa- 



: He receives into his school as 
many scholars as(l) apply." 
" Our instructor, who is scrupu- 
lously exact in the execution 
of justice, punishes severely all 
such as disobey his commands/' sion." 
Remarks. 1. c As' is a conjunction, used here as a relative, ac- 
cording to the Note preceding, of the third person plural, masculine 
gender, agreeing with 'scholars/ according to Rule V. and in the 
nominative case to 'apply,' according to Rule VI. 

Note XX. — The conjunction than seems to have the force 
of a preposition before the relative whom, in a sentence where 
a comparison is made ; as follows: 

" Which, when Beelzebub per- " Alfred, than whom, Solomon 
ceived, than whom,(l) Satan excepted, a wiser king never 
(2) excepted(3) h none higher reigned, was one of the earliest 
sat." English kings." 

Remarks. 1. 'Whom 5 is governed by the conjunction than, used 



Q,. Will you parse the exercises 
under Rule XXII? 

Q. What is the Note respecting 
'like' and 'unlike'? XVII. 

Q,. " He is like his father." How 
is 'father' parsed? Note XVII. 

Q,. Will you next take the remain- 
ing exercises under Note XVII? 

Q,. When is the conjunction 'as' 
used as a relative pronoun? Note 
XIX. 

Q. Will you parse 'as' in the 



phrase " He received into his school 
as many scholars as apply"? Note 
XIX. 

Q,. Will you parse the remaining 
exercises under this Note? 

Q,. When is 'than' considered a 
preposition? Note XX. Give an 
example. 

Q,. What would be the effect of 
using the personal pronoun instead 
of the relative? Observation under 
Note XX. Give an example. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as a preposition, according to Note XX. 2. Apply Rule XVI 1 
3. Participle, agreeing with 'Satan,' by Rule XIII. It is somewhat 
remarkable that if in the last two examples the personal pronoun 
'Ae' were substituted for whom, it would be in the nominative case; 
as, " A wiser king never reigned than he;" that is, " than he was.'' 

649. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence having a proper example under Rule 
II II? Ill] IV1 V? VI] VII] VIII] IX] X] XI] XII] XIII] 
XIV] XV] XVI] XVII] XVIII] XIX] XX] XXI] XXII] 

Will you construct a sente nee descriptive of the calamities arising 
from fire? one, on losses by sea? one, on the fatal effects of lightning? 
one, on the character of our forefathers? one, on each of the seasons? 
one, on the effects of rain? one, on the manner of making hay? one, 
on the appearance of soldiers when training? one, on the celebration 
of the fourth of July? one, on the utility of fire 11 , one, on the utility of 
wood 1 , one, on the usefulness of the cowl one, onfruitl 



!TLXIV. OF WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH . 

650. That is a Relative, 

When f who ? or 'which' may be substituted for it, and make sense; 
as, Cf The man that [who] arrived yesterday. " 

651. That is a Demonstrative Pronoun, 

When it is joined with a noun to point it out; as, <f That man is 
intelligent." 

652. That is a Conjunction, 

In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pro- 
noun; as, " He studies that he may learn." 

Q. Will you now take the sen- Q,. What is gender? 312. Mas- 

tences to be parsed and written? culine gender? 314. Feminine gen- 

Q. How many articles are there? der? 315. Common gender? 316. 

351. Will you name them? 351. Neuter gender? 317. 

When do we use 'a'? 356, 357. Q. How may nouns, naturally 

When 'an'? 355. neuter, be converted into the rnas- 

Q,. What does English Grammar culine or feminine gender? 318. 

teach? 288. How many parts of Q,. What is the feminine corres- 

speech are there in English? 299. ponding to 'bachelor'? 319. How is 

Q. What is 'orthography'? 291. the feminine here formed? 

Q,. What does it teach us? 291. . Q. Will you spell the feminine 

Q,. What is 'etymology'? 293. corresponding to 'lad'? 'king'? 'ben- 

Q,. What are proper names? 302. efactor'? 319. How is the feminine 

Q,. What are common names? 301. here formed? 

Q,. In what manner may proper Q,. Will you spell the feminine 

names be used as common names? corresponding to 'baron'? 'poet': 

303. 'priest? 'Jew' 5 'votary'? 'tutor'.' 

Q,. How may proper names be 'hero'? 'duke'? 'instructor'? 319. 

used to represent individuals? 304. TTLXIV. Q,. When is'that' a rel- 

Q. What is a collective noun? ative? 650. Give an example. A 

306. demonstrative pronoun? 651. Give 

Q,. What four things belong to an example. When a conjunction! 

nouns? 308. 652. Give an example. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 117 

653. But is a Preposition, 

When it has the sense of 'except';, as, " All but [except] John 
came." 

654. But is an Adverb, 

When it has the sense of 'only'; as, " This is but [only] doing our 
duty. 55 

655. But is a Conjunction, 

In all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition; as, " He 
called, but I refused to go. 5 ' 

656. As is a Relative, 

When it follows 'many/ 'such/ or 'same'^as, "Let such as hear 
take heed." 

657. As is an Adverb, 

When it is joined to an adverb or adjective in the sense of f so'; as, 
"He does as well as he can." 

658. As is a Conjunction, 

In all cases except when it is an adverb or relative; as, " He did 
as I directed him. 55 

659. Either is a Conjunction, 

When it corresponds to f or; as, "Either the one or the other." 

66CV Either is a Distributive Pronoun, 

When it means " one of the two"; as, " You can take either road." 

661. Both is a Conjunction, 

When it is followed by 'and'; as, " We assisted him both for his 
sake and our own." 

662. Both is an Adjective Pronoun, 

" When it means " the two;" 5 as, " Both the men are guilty." 

663. Yet is a Conjunction, 

When it follows 'though'; as, " Though he reproves me, yet I es- 
teem him." In all other cases it is an adverb; as, " That event has 
yet to come. 5 ' 

664. For is a Conjunction, 

When it means the same as 'because'; as, " He trusted him, for he 
knew that he would not deceive him. 53 

665. For is a Preposition, 

In all instances except when it is a conjunction; as, " He works 
for me.'' 

Q,. When is 'but 1 a preposition? Q,. When is 'both' a conjunction? 

G53. Give an example. When an 661. Give an example. When an 

adverb? 654. Give an example, adjective pronoun? 662. Give an 

When a conjunction? 655. Give an example, 

example. Q. When is 'yet' a conjunction? 

Q. When is 'as' a relative? 656. 663. Give an example. When an 

Give an example. When an ad- adverb? 663. Give an example, 

verb? 657. Give an example. Q,. When is *for' a conjunction? 

When a conjunction? 658. Give an 664. Give an example. W 7 hen a 

example. preposition? 665. Give an example. 

Q. When is 'either' a conjunction? Q,. When is 'what' a compound 
659. Give an example. When a relative? (^66. Give an example, 
distributive pronoun? 660. Give an When an interrogative relative pro- 
example, noun? 667. Give an example. When 



US ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

666. What is a Compound Relative, 

When it stands for ''that which;" as, "I will take what [that 
which] you send me." 

667. What is an Interrogative Relative Pronoun, 
When used in asking questions; as, "What do you wantl" 

66 8. What is an Adjective Pronoun, 

When joined with a noun; as, " What strange things he said." 

669. What is a Compound Pronoun, 

When joined with nouns, and has the sense of two or more words; 
as, "In what manner he succeeded, is unknown tome;" that is, 
" The manner in which he succeeded, is unknown to me." 

670. What is an Interjection, 

When used to express wonder; as, " What! take my moneyl" 

67 I . Then is a Conjunction, 

When it has the sense oi 'therefore'; as, " If he has commanded 
it, then I must obey." 

672. Then is an Adverb, 

When it refers to time; as, " Did you hear it thunder, thenV 

673. Much is a Noun, 

When it stands for 'quantity'; as, " Where much is given, much 
will be required." 

674. Much is an Adjective, se 
When it is joined to nouns; as, cc Much labor fatigues us." 

675. Much is an Adverb, 

When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does; 
as, " Thou art much mightier than I." 

676. More is a Noun, 

When it implies quantity; as, " The more we have, the more we 
want." 

677. More and Most are Adjectives, 

W T hen they qualify a noun; as, " The more joy I have, the more 
sorrow I expect:" "Most men are mistaken in their pursuit of hap- 
piness." 

678. More and Most are Jldverbs, 

When used in comparisons; as, " This boy is more obedient than 
that: 5 ' " The soil of Cuba is most fertile." 

an adjective pronoun? 668. Give adjectives? 677. Give examples of 

an example. When a compound each? When adverbs? 678. Give 

pronoun? 669. Give an example, examples of each. 

When an interjection? 670. Give an Q. What is number? 5. What 

example. does the singular number denote? 8. 

Q. When is 'then' a conjunction? What the plural? 10. 

671. Give an example. YVhen an Q,. What nouns have the singular 

adverb. 3 672. Give an example. form only? 324. What the plural? 

Q. When is 'much' a noun? 673. 325. What are the same in both 

Give an example. When an adjec- numbers? 326. 

tive ? 674. Give an example. When Q,. How is the plural number of 

an adverb? 675, Give an example, nouns generally formed? 327. 

Q,. When is 'more' a noun? 676. Q,. When nouns end in ch, sh, 

Give an example. &c. how do they form the plural? 

Q. When are 'more' and 'most' 328. 



EXERCISES. 



119 



679. PROMISCUOUS 
f They perfume their garments." 
' A perfume is a sweet od >r." 
< They rise early in the morn- 
ing.'' 
' Arise sometimes signifies the 

beginning. 
£ Rufus speaks the language of 

truth. 55 
6 James performed his part well." 
f A well is a fountain of water. 55 
' A well man is one who enjoys 

his health." 
( We frequently walk in the gar- 
den." 
f The Jews fast often." 
( He walks very fast." 
c The refuse signifies the worth- 
less remains." 
' Desert not a friend." 
f Joseph's brethren came and 

bowed down before him. 55 
f William went after his slate.' 5 

s 

1 The man that 1 saw. 55 

• That man that you met yester- 
day in the street, was taken 
and sent to Boston, that he 
might have an impartial trial." 

[ We assisted him both for your 
sake and our own. 5 ' 

: Both the men are guilty." 

: Although he reproves me yet I 
esteem him." 
All but John came. 5 ' 

f This is but doing our duty." 
He called me but I refused to 
go." 

'• Let such as hear take heed. 55 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" His elder brethren came before 
Benjamin did." 

" John left after William came. 55 

" Evil communications corrupt 
good manners." 

(c Corrupt conversation is very 
foolish." 

tc A walk in the fields in the sum- 
mer season is delightful." 

" A true fast is abstaining from 
iniquity." 

" Sin is a moral evil and the 
cause of natural evils." 

" Protest not rashly, lest thou 
have to repent of it. 5 ' 

" A protest is a solemn declara- 
tion against a thing." 

cc Do nothing rashly, lest thou 
precipitate thyself into inextri- 
cable difficulty. 

" Hasty promises are seldom 
kept. 55 

(C Did you hear the report of the 

cannon then!" 
" Where much is given much will 

be required. 55 
" Future time is yet to come. 5 ' 
<c He trusted him for he knew that 

he would not deceive him." 
" He works for me. 5 ' 
" He refused what was sent him.' 5 
<f What strange things he saw. 5 ' 
fC In what manner he succeeded 

is unknown to me." 
(i What! will you take my life?" 
" The more we have the more 

we want/ 5 



Q. How do those ending in f or 
fei 329. 

Q. How is the plural forme*! when 
the singular ends in y, with no other 
vowel in the same syllable? 330. 

Q,. What is case? 333. The nom- 
inative case? 335. Possessive case? 
337? How formed? 338. How form- 
ed when ihe singular ends in ss? 341. 

Q,. What does the objective case 
express ? 343. 

Q. Will you decline 'man'? 
'book'? 345. «Chair' ? 345. 



Q. Will you parse the promiscu- 
ous exercises? 

Q. What is an adjective? 363. 
What does the positive staie express? 
365. Comparative? 366. Superla- 
tive? 367. How is the comparative 
formed in monosyllab'es? 369. How 
in more syllables than one? 370, 

Q,. How do you compare the fol- 
lowing adjectives, '#ood/ 'bad/ 
'wise,' 'little,' 'small/ 'virtuous/ 
'many/ 'old"? 115. 

Q. When is on adjective to be- 
come a noun in paising? 378. 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



' He did as I directed him.'' 

' You may take either the one or 

the other." 
' Either road will conduct you 

to the right place." 
f II he has commanded it then I 

must obey." 

3 
c Susan is determined to learn." 
; By lraming excuses he prolong- 
ed his stay. " 
1 The man who is faithfully at- 
tached to religion may be relied 
on with confidence." 
: James, do visit me." 



" The more joy I have the mor: 

sorrow I expect." 
" The most dutiful children are 

the happiest children. ■ 
"Much labor fatigues me." 
" Thou art much mightier than I 

am." 

" Virtue and vice are opposites." 
" When John's father asked him 
that question, he heard him but 
refused to answer him." 
"The wall is sixty feet high.' ' 
<c To meet our fiiends after a long 
absence affords us much joy." 



flLXV. CONTRACTIONS 

680. Of the Auxiliary Have, also of Had. 
: They've forsaken him.'' « I've satisfied myself." 

I'd gone when you came." "They'd determined to let him 

: They'd just returned from go." 
town." 

681. Of Will and Would. 
I'll finish my work first." " He is still determined that he'll 

: They'd sing songs till midnight not forbear." 

"He'll at last mind me." 
6S2. Of Am and Is. 

" 'Tis strange that she will not 
regard the kind assistance of 
have mis- her friend." 



if they were urged. 

: That mans rich.' 5 
: 'Tis true she's dead. 
: I'm sorry that you 
spent your time." 

683. 



1 He can't 

tions." 
: You can't 

times. :! 



endure such afilic- 
be absent at such 



Of Cannot and Will Not. 



He won't disobey me.'' 
; You won't mistake the direc- 
tion." 



Q,. Will you name a few adjee- 
lives which have in themselves a 
superlative signification! 374. 

Q,. What is a pronoun? 381. A 
personal pronoun? 382. Why called 
personal? 382. 

Q. How many persons have pro- 
nouns in each number? 383. How 
many numbers? 384. 

Q. To which of the pronouns is 
gender applied? 382. 

Q,. How many cases have pro- 
nouns? 384. 

Q. Will you decline l I? 'thou'? 
'he'? 'she'? 'it'? ]27. 

Q. What kind of a pronoun is 
myself? 386. how formed? 386. 



Q,. What is a relative pronoun? 
409. Why called relative? 408, 

Q,. What is said of the relative 
'what'? 429. 

Q,. How ought 'who' to be appli- 
ed? 412. how 'which'? 413. how 
may 'that' be used? 415. 

Q,. When are pronouns called in- 
terrogative? 431. 

Q,. W hat are adjective pronouns? 
390. How many kinds of adjective 
pronouns are there? 391. 

Q. Which are the Demonstrative? 
392. Why so qallert? 398. the Dis- 
tributive? 393. Why so called? 393, 
the Indefinite 5 402* Why so called? 
401. 



OMISSIONS. 



121 



684. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an interrogative sen- 
tence. 
" Who -will assist me?" 'John.' " What will make me respecta- 

[will assist me.] ble and happy!" 'Virtue.' 

" What sent our forefathers to this " Who taught him grammar] " 
country?" " The love of lib- c Mr. Williams.' 
erty." 

6S5. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Auxiliary. 



f£ Stephen will go if Jokn will. 

[go-] 
Cf Susan shall walk, but John 

shall not." 
" I have recited; have you]'' 



' He received me in the same 

manner that I would you." 
"I will do it as soon as I can." 
" The work is not completed, but 
soon will be." 



686. Omissions of the Principal Verb after Than and As 



playful than her 



1 Thomas is a better scholar than 

William. 5 ' [is.] 
iC He was more beloved than Cin- 
thia, but not so much admired." 
cf Johnson is richer than James. " 

687. Omissions of the verb To Be. 
<c Sweet the pleasure, rich the cc Delightful task to rear the en 



Susan is not so beautiful as Ma- 
ry." 
" She is more 
brother. 5 ' 



treasure. 
cc A child of freedom thou." 
" Sw r eet the music of birds. 5 ' 
Ct Dear the school-boy's sport." 



der thought, 
To teach the young idea how to 
shoot." 



Q, To what do 'this' and 'that' 
refer? 400. 

Q,. Will von decline 'one'? 404. 
'other'? 403. 

Q. What is the rule by which 
pronouns agree with their antece- 
dents? V. „ 

Q,. Which words in sentences are 
antecedents? 420. 

Q,. What are subsequents? 431. 

Q, Will you parse the exercises 
marked 2? 

Q. What is a verb? 438. 

Q,. What is an active verb? 439. 

Q. When is an active verb tran- 
sitive? 440. When intransitive? 441. 

Q. What is a passive verb? 444. 
How formed? 510. 

Q. How may a transitive verb be 
known? 154. 

Q. How an intransitive? 154. 

Q. What is a neuter verb? 450. 

Q. Will you next take the exercis- 
es marked 3? 

Q. What belong to verbs?* 

Q How many numbers have 



they? How many persons ?t 

Q. What is mood? 45 1. How 
many are there? 481. Will you name 
them? 

Q,. What is the indicative mood 
used for? 452. the Potential? 453. 
the Imperative' 472. Subjunctive? 
456. Infinitive? 479. 

Q. What are participles? 498. 
How may the participles in ing be 
distinguished from other words of 
like termination? 500. 

Q. How many and which are the 
participles?^ What does the present 
express 5 500. Perfect? 502. Com- 
pound perfect? 504. 

TILXV. Q. Will you next parse 
the contractions? 680. 

Q. What is tense? What is the 
present used for? 482. The perfect? 
488. Pluperfect? 491. 1. Future? 492. 
2. Future? 493. 

Q,. Under what circumstances do 
we use the present tense to denote 
the relative time of a future action? 
484. 



*Mood, tense, number and person. tThree. 

{Three; the Present, Perfect, and Compound Perfect. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

68S. Omissions ofMiy, Might, Could, Would and Should. 
<r T iive long and be happy/' " He might not weep, nor laugh, 

'ho will entreat the Lord that nor sing." 
1 ; spare our lives!" " Should 1 forgive you and allow 

" I , ould not think, nor speak, you to depart, you would not 

nor hear." reform." 

689. Omissions of the Conjunction before the verb in the Subjunctive 

Mood. 
"If he will repent and reform, I "Had I improved my time as I 
will assist him." ought to have done, 1 should 

iC Unless good order be restored, have been well qualified for 
and the former officers be re- business." 
elected, there will be an end to "Were there no alternative, I 
the administration of justice." would not do that."' 

690. Omissions of For after verbs implying the idea oj serving. 
" Make rne a pen." " Bring me some water." 

" Order me a carriage." " Purchase him a knife." 

691. Omissions of the Interjection. 
"Sweet child! lovely child! thy " Thou Preserver and Creator of 

parents are no more.'' all mankind!" 

" Sweet blossom! precious to my " My beloved Ulrica! Hast thou. 

heart/' too, forgotten me!" 

692. Omissions of the Relative. 

" Several men are there come " I trust that he I desire to see so 

irom Europe." much, will speedily return." 

TJLXVI. INVERTED SENTENCES. 

693. The nominative case placed after the verb. 
" Smack went the whip, round guished for his learning and po- 

went the wheels, liteness." 

Were ever folks so glad." "And in soft ringlets waved her 

"There goes a man alike distin- golden hair." 

Q. In what sort of descriptions do persons lias the imperative? 518. 

we use the present for the past tense? How many tenses? 529. How 

486. many forms has the subjunctive 

Q,. What is the conjugation of a mood? 4G1. In what do they differ' 

verb? 531. 461. 

Q,. What is the conjugation of an Q. Will you now parse the omis- 

active verb styled? 532. A passive sions? 6^4, &c. 

verb? 532. Q, How is the passive verb form- 
er. How n any tenses has the in- ed? 510. 

dicative? 525. Potential? 527. Sub- Q, Will you decline 'lore' in the 

junctive? 526. Imperative? 529. In- indicative present, passive? and the 

jrinitive? 528. verb f to be' h- the imperfect? Per- 

Q,. What is the sign of the present feet? Pluperfect? 1. Future? 2. Fu- 

indicative? 519. The imperfect? 520. tore? Pres. potential? Irnperfeet? 

Perfect? 521. Pluperfect? 522. 1. Perfect? Pluperfect? Pres. Subjunc- 

Future? 523. 2. Future? 524. The live, common form? Imperfect? 

potenti.il mood? 5J5 Infinitive? Perfect ? Piupeifect ? 1. Future? 2. 

517. Subjunctive? 516. How many Future? 



SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 123 

694. The objective case before the verb. 

u Tyrants no more their savage " Me glory summons to the mar- 
nature kept, tial scene." 

And foes to virtue wondered how " The rolls of fame I wfll not 
they wept." now explore." 

695. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence exemplifying Rule Villi One, Rule 
1X1 X! XII XII] XIII? XIV1 Will you compose a sentence on 
the use of the dog? One, en the clouds? One, on night? One, on 
wind? One, on snowl One, on hail? One, on ice? One, on skating? 
One, on fishing? One, on courage? One, on covmrdice? One, on filial 
duty? One. on indolence? One, on schools? 

6.96. -SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 

" Here rests bis head upon a lap of earth, 
A youth to fortune and to fame unknown." 

Transposed. 
" A youth unknown to fortune and to fame, 
Rests here his head upon a lap of earth." 

" When young, life's journey I began, 

The glittering prospect charmed my eyes; 
I saw along the extended plain, 
Joy after joy successive rise: 
But soon I found 'twas all a dream, 

And learned the fond pursuit to shun, 
Where few can reach the purposed aim, 
And thousands daily aie undone." 
Transposed. 
" I began life's journey when young, and the glittering prospect 
charmed my eyes; I saw joy after joy successive rise, along the ex- 
tended plain; but soon I found it was all a dream; and learned to 
shun the fond pursuit, where few can reach the purposed aim, and 
thousands are daily undone. 57 

Q. In what voice, mood, tense, Q. Will you give the synopsis of 

number and person, is "I love"? 'learn,' through all the moods, tenses, 

11 We love'*? "They aie loved"? &c. in the first person, including the 

*• You are"? " 1 did learn"? " John participle? 'Learn.' in like manner, 

was instructed"? "He was"? "They in the passive? The verb 'to be' in 

have returned"? " Have they gone"? the same manner? 

"They have been"? "Iliad had"? Q,. Will you give the synopsis of 

"They had been distinguished"? 'desire' in the active voice, with the 

" Thou hadst been"? " You shall participles? Of the same in the 

he taught"? " Shall I be punished"? passive? Of 'do' in the active? In 

■■ He shall have been"? the passive? 

TTLXVT. Q,. Will you parse the Q,. When is a verb called regular? 

inverted sentences? 693, &c. 533. When irregular? 534. 

Q. In what voice, mood, tense, Q. Will you repeat the present 
number and person, is " Love thou"? and imperfect tenses, also the per- 
" I may go"? " You may be regard- feet participle, of 'am'? 'see?' 'hear'? 
ed"? " You might be rejoiced"? 'do'? 'weep'? 'sink'? 'swim'? 
" She may have been refused"? "We Q,. Will you next take the sen- 
should have been"? "If I have"? tences to be written? 
"If thou have". 1 * " If thou hast"? Q,. What are auxiliary verbs? 511. 
" To have"? " To have been"? 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

:c Needful austerities our wills restrain,. 
As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm.'' 
Transposed. 
"Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the 
tender plant." 

" On some fond breast the parting soul reclines, 
Some pious drops the closing eve requires; 
E'en i'rom the tomb the voice of nature cries, 
E en in our ashes live their wonted fires." 
Transposed. 
" The parting soul relies on some fond breast; the closing eye re- 
quires some pious drops; the voice of nature cries, even from the 
tomb; and their wonted fires live even in our ashes." 

<f From lofty themes, from thoughts that soared on high, 

And opened wondrous scenes above the sky, 

My Muse! descend, indulge my fond desire, 

With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire, 

And smooth my numbers to a female's praise; 

A partial world will listen to my lays, 

While Anna reigns and sets a female name 

Unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." 
Transposed. 
<c my Muse! descend thou from lofty themes, and, from thoughts 
that soared on high, and opened wondrous scenes above the sky, in- 
dulge thou my fond desire; and do thou inspire my melting soul with 
softer thoughts, and smooth my numbers to a female's praise; a par- 
tial world will listen to my lays, while Anna reigns, and sets a female 
name unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." 



Q,. How many and which are Q. What is Syntax? 296. What 

they? 512. is a sentence? 252. A simple sen- 

Q,. What are defective verbs? 579. tence? 253. 

Q,. What is an adverb? 588. Why Q,. What is the rule for the agree- 
so called? 228. ment of nouns? XV. Articles?^ II, 

Q,. In what manner are adverbs III. Adjectives? IV. Pronouns? V. 

compared? 23(3, 234. Verbs? VII. Participles? XIII. 

Q,. What are the phrases winch Agreement of a verb plural with two 

do the office of adverbs called? 589* nouns singular? XVIII. Adjective 

Q,. Will you name a few? 589. pronouns and numerals? Note I. 

Q.. What is a preposition? 595. Q. What is the rule by which a 

Q,. Will you repeat the list of verb agrees with a noun of multi- 
prepositions? 247. tnde or collective noun? Note XVI. 

Q. What is a conjunction? 602. Rule for the objective case after a 

Conjunction copulative? 265. Why transitive verb? VIII. 

so called? 264. Conjunction dis- Q. What is the rule for the ob- 

junctive? 274. Why so called? 271. jective case after a preposition? X. 

Q,. Will you repeat the list of After a participle? XIV. Rule for 

copulative conjunctions? 266. Of the adverb? IX. Rule respecting the 

disjunctive conjunctions? 275. interjections O! Oh! Ah! &c? Note 

Q. What is an interjection 5 607. X. 

Why so called? 283. Mention a few! Q,. Will you parse the sentences. 

2b5. marked transposed 3 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 



SYNTAX. 

That part of Grammar which treats of the formation and sound of 
the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and syllables into 
words, is called Orthography. 

That part which treats of the different sorts of words, their various 
changes and their derivations, is called Etymology. 

That part which treats of the union and right order of words in 
the formation of sentences, is called Syntax. 

Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, Uni- 
versal and Particular. Universal Grammar explains the principles 
which are common to all languages. Particular Grammar applies 
those principles to a particular language, modifying them according 
to the genius of that tongue, and the established practice of the best 
writers and speakers by whom it is used. 

Language, in the proper sense of the word, signifies the expres- 
sion of our ideas, and their various relations, by certain articulate 
sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas and relations. An 
articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, iorined by the or- 
gans of speech. 

Letters are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, the 
elements of the language. 

The letters of the English Language, called the English Alphabet, 
are twenty-six in number, each of which constitutes the first princi- 
pal, or least part of a word. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The 
vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. ftTand y are con- 
sonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other situ- 
ation they are vowels. 

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without 
the aid of a vowel; as, b, d, f 3 I. All letters except the vowels are 
consonants. 



Q. What is Orthography? Ety- English language called? What 

mology? Syntax? does each constitute? 

Q,. How many kinds of Grammar Q,. How are letters divided? 

are there? What are they? What Q,. What is a vowel? Which arc 

is Universal Grammar? Particular they? How many do they make? 

Grammar? When are w and y consonants? 

Q. What is Language? When vowels? 

Q,. What is an articulate sound? Q,. What is a consonant? Give 

Q. What are letters? an example. 

Q. What are the letters of the Q. Which letters are consonant^ 
L2 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel:. 
They are b, p, t, d, /c, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They 
are/, I, m 3 n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids, be- 
cause they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, 
into their sounds. 

A dipthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single im- 
pulse of the voice; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like man- 
ner, as, eau in beau, iew in view. 

A proper dipthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded; 
as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper dipthong has but one of the vowels sounded; as, ea 
in eagle, oa in boat. 

A Syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, uttered by 
a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part of a 
w<5rd; as, a, an, ant. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable; a word of two 
syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trissyllable; a 
word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. 

Words are articulate sounds used by common consent as signs of 
our ideas. 

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler 
word in the language; as, man, good. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to a simpler 
word; as, manful, goodness. 

The elementary sounds under their smallest combination produce a 
syllable ;, syllables, properly combined produce a word; words duly 
combined produce a sentence; and sentences properly combined pro- 
duce an oration, or discourse. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite* verb; 
as, 'Life is short.' 

Q,. How are the consonants di- Q,. What is a monosyllable? a 
yided? dissyllable? trissyllable? polysylla- 

Q,. What is a mute? Which are ble? 
they? Q,. What are words? Of how many 

Q,. What is a semi-vowel? Which sorts are they? What is a primitive 
are they? word? derivative word? Give an ex- 

Q,. Which of the semi-vowels are ample of each? 
called liquids, and why? Q. What does an elementary 

Q,. What isa dipthong* Give an, sound produce? What do syllables 
example. produce? Words? Sentences? 

Q,. What is a tripthong? Give Q. What is a sentence? 
an example. Q,. How are sentences divided? 

Q,. W T hat is a proper dipthong? an What is a simple sentence* Corn- 
improper dipthong? Give an exam- pound sentence? Give an example 
ample of each? of each? 

Q. What is a syllable? 

*Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs 
xn the infinitive mood have no respect to number and person. 



SYNTAX. 127 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
connected together; as, 'Life is short and art is long.' 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so 
the members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple and 
compound members; for whole sentences, whether simple or com- 
pound may become members of other sentences, by means of some 
additional connexion; as in the following example: 'The ox knoweth 
his owner, and the ass his master's crib; but Israel doth not know, my 
people doth not consider.' This. sentence consists of two compound- 
ed members, each of which is subdivided into two simple members, 
which are properly called clauses. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making some- 
times a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject, the attri- 
bute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of: the attribute is the thing 
or action affirmed or denied of it; and the object is the thing affected 
by such action. 

The nominative case denotes the subject; and usually goes before 
the verb or attribute; and the word or phrase denoting the object, 
follows the verb: as, 'A wise man governs his passions.' Here a 
wiseman is the subject; governs, the attribute or thing affirmed; and 
his passions the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Government. 
Concord is the agreement which one word has with another m gen- 
der, number, case,- or person. Government is that power which 
one part of speech has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or 
case. 

The right construction of sentences may perhaps be best 
learned by correcting examples of wrong construction : exer- 
cises in false syntax for the pupil, assisted by rules and notes 
to parse and correct, will therefore now be given. 

The following contain all the notes and observations in Mur- 
ray's large Grammar, together with all his exercises in fatae 
syntax. 

RULE VII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule I. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case 
in number and person. 

Q. How are the members of sen- Q, What is Concord? Govern- 

tences divided? Give an example 5 ment? 

Q. What is a phrase? fj^r The pupil is first to answer 

Q,. What are the principal parts the questions on each Rule or Note, 

of a simple sentence? then to correct and parse the subse- 
ts What is the subject? the attri- quent exercises. It is suggested to 

bute? the object? the teacher that the pupils should 

Q,. What does the nominative direct their attention first to the Rules 

case denote? and where is it usually and exercises under them, exciusive- 

placed in a sentence? Give an ex- ]y; omitting the Notes, &c. for a 

arap!e- review, when all may be taken in 

Q Of how many parts does Syr>- course. 

tax consist? Whai are they? Rule VII. ' If thou would be 



12S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule. 'What 
signifies good opinions, when our practice is bad'? 'what signify.' 'There's 
two or three of us, who have seen the work' : 'there are." 'YVe may sup- 
pose there was more impostors than one :' 'there were more.' 'I have con- 
sidered what have been said on both sides in this controversy': 'what has 
been said.' 'If thou would be healthy, live temperately' : 'if thoo uouldst. 1 
'Thou sees how little has been done' : 'thou seest.' 'Though thou cannot 
do much for the cause, thou may and should do something' : 'canst not, 
maystj and shovldst. 1 'Full many a flower are born to blush unseen' : *is 
born.' 'A conformity of inclinations and qualities prepare us for friend- 
ship' : 'prepares us.' 'A variety of blessings have been conferred upon 
us' : 'has been.' 'In piety and virtue consist the happiness of ( man' : 'con- 
sists.'' 'To these precepts are subjoined a copious selection of rules and 
maxims' : 'is subjoined'' 

'Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of hope 
give consolation.' 

c The smiles that encourage severity of judgment hides malice and 
insincerity. 5 

'He dare not act contrary to his instructions.' 

'Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour.' 

'The mechanism of clocks and watches, were totally unknown a 
few centuries ago.' 

'The number of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland, do not 
exceed sixteen millions. 5 

'Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. 5 

'A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 5 

'So much both of ability and merit are seldom found.' 

'In the conduct of Parmenio a mixture of wisdom and folly were 
very conspicuous. 5 

'He is an author of more credit than Plutarch, or any other that 
write lives too hastily. 5 

'The inquisitive and curious is generally talkative. 5 

'Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties.' 

'I am sorry to say it, but there was more equivocators than one. 

'The sincere is always esteemed.' 

'Has the goods been sold to advantage! and did thou embrace the 
proper season! 5 

'There is many occasions in life, in which silence and simplicity is 
true wisdom.' 

'The generous never recounts minutely the actions they have done; 
nor the prudent, those they will do. 5 

'He need not proceed in such haste. 5 

'The business that related to ecclesiastical meetings, matters and 
persons, were to be ordered according to the king's direction.' 

'In him were happily blended true dignity with softness of manners. 3 

'The support of so many of his relations, were a heavy tax upon 
his industry ; but thou knows he paid it cheerfully. 1 

'What avails the best sentiments, if persons do not live suitably to 
them'! 



healthy live temperately.' What is QjT When examples are referred 
wrong in this example? Why 5 What to without being quoted, the teacher 
.is the Rule for it? may read thera to the pupil. 



SYNTAX. 129 

•Reconciliation was offered, on conditions as moderate as was con- 
sistent with a permanent union.' 

'Not one of them whom thou sees clothed in purple, are completely 
happy.' 

'And the fame of this person, and of his wonderful actions, were 
diffused throughout the country. 5 

'The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations 
of nature, are without limit.* 

'In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
'When our abundance make us wish for more. 5 
'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as sincerely as thou loves thyself. 5 
'Has thou no better reason for censuring thy friend and compan- 
ion]' 

'Thou, who art the Author and bestower of life, can doubtless res- 
tore it also : but whether thou will please to restore it, or not, that 
thou only knows. 5 

'0 thou my voice inspire, 
'Who touch'd Isaiah's hallow 5 d lips with fire. 5 
'Accept these grateful tears ; for thee they flow ; 
'For thee that ever felt another's wo/ 
'Just to thy word, in ev 5 ry thought sincere ; 
'Who knew no wish but what the world might hear/ 
1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as the 
nominative case to the verb : as, 'To sec the sun is pleasant' : 'To be good 
is to be happy': 'A desire to excel others in learning and virtue is commend- 
able* : 'That warm climates should accellerate the growth of the human 
body, and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe' : 'To be tem- 
perate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in open air, and to preserve 
the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best preservatives of 
health.' 

'1. To do unto all men, as we would that they in similar circum- 
stances should do unto us, constitute the great "principle of virtue.* 

'From a fear of the world's censure, to be ashamed of the practice 
of precepts, which the heart appioves and embraces, mark a feeble 
and imperfect character.' 

'The erroneous opinions which we form concerning happiness and 
misery, gives rise to all the mistaken and dangerous passions that 
embroils our life/ 

'To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. 3 
'That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies, 
to be just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to be pious and faith- 
ful to Him that made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational and 
well informed mind.' 

'To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence to- 
wards others, to cultivate piety towards God, is the sure means of 
becoming peaceful and happy.' 

'It is an important truth, that religion, vital religion, the religion 
of the heart, are the most powerful auxiliaries of reason, in waging 
war with the passions, and promoting that sweet composure which 
constitute the peace of God.' 

'The possession of our senses entire, of our limbs uninjured, of a 

JVqU 1. What is incorrect in the this Note? How should it be altered? 
first example to be corrected, under. Repeat the Note for this. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sound understanding, of friends and companions, are often overlook- 
ed ; though it would be the ultimate wish of many, who, as far as we 
can judge, deserves it as much as ourselves.' 

'All that make a figure on the great theatre of the world, the em- 
ployments of the busy, the enterprises of the ambitious, and the ex- 
ploits of the warlike; the virtues which forms the happiness, and the 
crimes which occasions the misery of mankind ; originates in that 
silent and secret recess of thought, which are hidden from every 
human eye.' 

2. Ever)' verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the participle, ought to 
have a nominative case, either expiessed or implied ; as, 'Awake j arise / 
that is, 'Awake ye ; arise ye.' 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the verb 
without its nominative case. 'As it hath pleased him of his goodness to 
give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great danger,' 
&c. The verb 'hath preserved,'' has here uo nominative case, for it cannot 
be properly supplied by the preceding word, 'him,' which i3 in the objec- 
tive case. It ought to be, 'and as he hath preserved you' ; or rather, 'and 
to preserve you.' 'If" the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, 
had continued' ; 'and which lasted,' &c. 'These we have extracted from 
an historian of undoubted credit, and are the same that were practised,' 
&c? ; 'and they are the same.' 'A man whose inclinations led him to be 
corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business' ; 'and icho had/ 
&c. 'A cloud gathering in the north ; which we have helped to raise, and 
may quickly break in a storm upon our heads'; 'and zchich may quickly.' 

2. C H the privileges to which he has an undoubted right, and he has 
long enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would be flagrant 
injustice.' 

'The^e curiosities we have imported from China, and are similar to 
those which were some time ago brought from Africa.' 

'Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heav'n resign'dT 

3. Ev&ry nominative case, except the case absolute, and when antiddress 
is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either cxpressed^or im- 
plied : as, 'Who wrote this book'? 'James' ; that is, 'James wrote if' 'To 
whom thus Adam/ that is, 'spoke.' 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, without 
any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate 
the usefulness of tiie preceding observations. 

'Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighbouring prince would have 
wanted a great deal of that incense which hath betn ofiered up to him.' 
The pronoun it is here the nominative case to the verb 'observed' ; and 
which rule, is left by itself, a nominative case without any verb following 
it. This form of expression, though improper, is very common. It ought to 
be, l If this rule had been observed/ &c. 'Man, though he has great variety 
of thoughts, and such from which others as well as himself might receive 
profit and delight, yet they are all within his own breast.' In this sentence, 
the nominative man stands alone and unconnected with any verb, either 
expressed or implied. It should be, 'Though man has great variety,' &c. 

3. 'Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify 
the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.' 

Note 2. What correction should Note 3. Will you correct the ex- 
be made in the first example under ample beginning, 'Which rule if it 
this Note? Will you give the Rule had been observed/ &c. ? What is 
for this? the Rule for this alteration? 



SYNTAX. 131 

1 Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so con- 
stituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.' 

4. 'When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be un- 
derstood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them; 
but some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject 
of it, as also to that which stands next to the verb; as, 'His meat icas lo- 
custs and wild honey;' 'A great cause of the low state of industry were 
the restraints put upon it;' 'The wages of sin is death.' 

4. 'The crown of virtue is peace and honor.' 

'His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy.' 

5. 'When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, but is put 
before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence, it is called 
the case absolute; as, 'Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;' 'That having 
been discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it.' 

As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, always the 
nominative, the following 1 example is erroneous, in making it the objective. 
'Solomon was of this mind; and 1 have no doubt he made as wise and true 
proverbs, as any body has done since; him only excepted, who was a much 
greater and wiser man than Solomon.' It should be, '•he only excepted.' 

5. — 'Him destroy'd, 

Or won to what may work his utter loss, 
Ail this will soon follow.' 

'Whose gray top 



Shall tremble, him descending. 5 

The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb; but sometimes 
it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense; and between the auxiliary, 
and the verb or participle, if a compound tense; as, 

1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish expressed; 
as, 'Confidest thou in me?' 'Read thou!' 'Mayst thou be happy!' 'Long live 
the King!' 

2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as, 'Were it 
not for this;' 'Had I been there.' 

3d, When a veib neuter is used: as, 'On a sudden appeared the king.' 

4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, there) then, thence, 
hence, thus, &c: as, 'Here am I;' 'There was he slain;' 'Then cometh the 
end;' 'Thence ariseth his grief,' 'Hence proceeds his anger;' 'Thus was 
the affair settled.' 

5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be coupled 
with another sentence: as, ; Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, 
Jest ye die.' 

Some grammarians assert, the phi ases, as folloics, as appears, form what 
are called impersonal verbs; and should, therefore, be confined to the sin- 
gular number: as, 'The arguments advanced were nearly as follows','' 'The 
positions were as appears incontrovertible:' that is, 'as it follows,' 'as it ap- 
pears.' If we give (say they) the sentence a different turn, and instead of 
as, say such as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal; but properly 
agrees with its nominative, in the plural number: as, 'The arguments ad- 

Kote 4. 'His meat was locusts What is said of the expressions as 

and wild honey.' What is the nom- folloics, as appears? What is Dr. 

inative case to was? Rule for it? Campbell's opinion concerning them? 

Note 5. When is a noun in the Rule X VIII. Give an example of 

case absolute? the violation of this Rule. Why 

Is the nominative case usually should the plural verb be used iath- 

placed before or after the verb? In er than the singular? 
what instances is it placed after? 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

vanced were nearly such as follow) 'The positions were such as appear 
incontrovertible.'* 

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, 'That as, 
however and whenever used in English, means the same as it, or that, or 
which; and who are not satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first 
mentioned, should be in the singular or the plural number, may vary the 
form of expression. Thus, the eense of the preceding sentences, may be 
conveyed in the following terms. 'The arguments advanced were nearly 
of the following nature;' 'The following are nearly the arguments which 
were advanced;' 'The arguments advanced were nearly those which fol- 
low;' 'Jt appears that the positions were incontrovertible;' 'That the posi- 
tions were incontrovertible is apparent;' 'The positions were incontrovert- 
ible is apparent;' 'The positions were apparently incontrovertible.' 

RULE XVIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule II. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns of the singu- 
lar number, connected together by and, either 
expressed or understood, must have verbs, nouns 
and pronouns, agreeing with them in the plural 
number. 

This rule is often violated; some instances of which are annexed. — 
'And so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who were partners 
with Simon;' 'and so were also.' 'All joy, tranquillity and peace, even for 
ever and ever, doth dwell;' 'dwell for ever.' 'By whose power all good 
and evil is distributed;' 'are distributed.' 'Their love, and their hatred, 
and their envy, is now perished;' 'are perished.' 'The thoughtless and in- 
temperate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, and the forget- 
fulness of our bein<r accountable creatures, obliterates every serious thought 
of the proper business of life, and effaces the sense of religion and of God;. 
It ought to be, ' obliterate 1 and 'efface.' 

'Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices.' 

'Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 

c In unity consists the welfare and security of every society.' 

'Time and tide waits for no man.' 

'His politeness and good disposition was, on failure of their effect, 
entirely changed.' 

'Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.' 

'Humility, and knowledge, with poor apparel, excels pride and 
ignorance under costly attire.' 

Note 1. 'Tranquillity and peace this sentence? What doe9 Dr. Blair 
dwells there.' What is wrong in remark of such sentences? 

*These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the author- 
ity of an eminent critic on language and composition. 'When a verb is 
used impersonally,' says Dr. Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, 'it 
ought undoubted 'y to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pro- 
noun be expressed or understood.' For this reason, analogy and usage 
favor this mode of expression: 'The conditions of the agreement were as 
folloics:' and not as follow. A few late writers have inconsiderately 
adopted this last form, through a mistake of the construction. For the same 
reason, we ought to say, 'I shall consider his censures so far only as con- 
cerns my friend's conduct;' and not 'so far as concern' 



SYNTAX. 133 

'The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, af- 
fects the mind with sensations of atonishment. > 

'Humility and love, whatever obscurities may involve religious 
tenets, constitutes the essence of true religion. 5 

'Religion and virtue, our best support and highest honor, confers 
on the mind principles of noble independence.' 

'What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when youth 
think they have no need of assistance! ' 

]. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable in 
sense, and sometimes even when they are very different, some authors 
have thought it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the sin- 
gular number; as. 'Tranquillity and peace dwells there;' 'Ignorance and 
negligence has produced the effect;' 'The discomfiture and slaughter was 
very great.' But it is evidently contrary to the first principles of grammar, 
to consider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their shades of 
difference; and if there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, 
and ought to be rejected.' 

To support the above construction, it is said, that the verb may be un- 
derstood as applied to each of the preceding terms; as in the following ex- 
ample. 'Sand, and salt, and a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man 
without understanding.' But besides the confusion, and the latitude of ap- 
plication, which such a construction would introduce, it appears to be more 
proper and analogical, in cases where the verb is intended to be applied 
to any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, which 
grammatically refers the verb to one or other of the preceding terms, in a 
separate view. To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and 
disjunctive conjunctions, would render the rules precise, consistent and in- 
telligible. Dr. Blair very justly observes, that 'two or more substantives, 
joined by a copulative, must alio ays require the verb or pronoun to which 
they refer, to be placed in the plural number.' 

1. 'Much does human pride and self-complacency require correc- 
tion.' 

'Luxurious living, and high pleasures, begets a languor and satiety 
that destroys all enjoyment. 5 

'Pride and self-sufficiency stifles sentiments of dependence on our 
Creator: levity and attachment to worldly pleasures destroys the 
sense of gratitude to him. 5 

2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to determine, 
whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nominative 
case; and, consequently, whether the verb should be in the singular or the 
plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a number of varied exam- 
ples of this nature, which may serve as some government to the scholar, 
with respect to sentences of a similar construction. 'Prosperity with hu- 
mility, renders its possessor truly amiable.' 'The ship, with all her furni- 
ture, was destroyed.' 'Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered 
by his misconduct.' 'The general, also, in conjunction with the officers, 
has applied for redress.' 'He cannot be justified; for it is true, that the 
prince, as well as the people, icas blameworthy.' 'The king, with his life- 
guard, has just passed through the village.' 'In the mutual influence of 
body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot 
fathom. 5 'Virtue, honor, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend 
the measure.' 'Patriotism, morality, every public and private considera- 
tion, demand our submission to just and lawful government.' 'Nothing 
delights me so much as the works of nature.'' 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, we see the au- 
thority of Hume, Priestley, and other Writeis; and we annex them for the 
reader's consideration. 'A long course of time, with a variety of accidents 

M 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and circumstances, are requisite to produce those revolutions.' 'The khig t 
with the lords and commons, form an excellent frame ot government.' — - 
'The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle. 1 'The fire 
communicated itself to the bed, which, vvitii the furniture of the room, and 
a valuable library, were all entirely consumed.' It is, however, proper to 
observe, that these modes of expression do not appear to be warranted by 
the just principles of construction. The words, 'A long course of time." 
'The king,' 'The side A,' and 'which,' are the true nominatives to the re- 
spective verbs. In the last example, the word all should be expunged. 
As the preposition with governs the objective case in English) and, if trans- 
lated into Latin, would govern the ablative case, it is manifest, that the 
clauses following with, in the preceding sentences, cannot form any part 
of i\\e nominative case. They cannot be at the same time in the objective 
and the nominative cases. '1 he following sentence appears to be unexcep- 
tionable, and may serve to explain the others. 'The lords and commons 
are essential branches of the British constitution: the king, with them, 
forms an excellent frame of government."* 

2. 'Good order in our affairs, not mean savings, produce great 
profits.' 

'The following treatise, together with those that accompany it y 
were written many years ago, for my own private satisfaction.' 

'That great senator, in concert with several other eminent persons, 
were the projectors of the revolution. 5 

'The religion of these people, as well as their customs and man- 
ners, were strangely misrepresented.' 

'Virtue, joined to knowledge and wealth, confer great influence 
and respectability. But knowledge, with wealth united, if virtue is 
wanting, have a very limited influence, and are often despised. 5 

'That superficial scholar and critic, like some renowned critics of 
our own, have furnished most decisive proofs that they knew not the 
characters of the Hebrew language.' 

'The buildings of the institution have been enlarged; the expense 
of which, added to the increased price of provisions, render it neces- 
sary to advance the terms of admission. 5 

'One, added to nineteen, make twenty.' 

'What black despair, what horror, fills his mind!' 

3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a 
copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plural pro- 
nouns agree with them in person, the second person takes place of the 
third, and the first of both: as, 'James, and thou, and 1, are attached to our 
country.' 'Thou and he shared it between you.' 

3. 'Thou, and the gardener, and the huntsman, must share the 
blame of this business amongst them. 5 

'My sister and I, as well as my brother, are daily employed in 
their respective occupations.' 

Note 2. 'The side A, with the Note 3. In the first example for 

sides B and C, compose the triangle.' correction under this Note, what 

In this sentence what is the nomina- should be altered? Why? Will you 

tive case to compose? Should the repeat the Note? 
verb then be singular or plural? Will 
you repeat Note 2? 



*Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence 
would certainly stand better thus: 'The king, the lords, and the commons, 
form an excellent constitution.' 



SYNTAX. 135 

RULE XXIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule III. 

The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that of the conjunc- 
tion copulative; for as the verb, noun, or pronoun, is reierred to the pre- 
ceding terms taken separately, it must be in the singular number; as 'Ig- 
norance or negligence has caused this mistake;' 'John, James, or Joseph 
mtcnds to accompany ine; ! 'There is, in many minds, neither knowledge 
nor understanding.' to 

The following sentences are variations from this rule: *A man may see 
a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a descrip- 
tion;' 'read it.' 'Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood-' 
'was yet.' 'It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not 
carry in them robbery or murder;' 'does not carry in it.' 'Death, or some 
worse misfortune, soon divide them.' It ought to be, 'divides.' 

'Man's happiness or misery, are, in a great measure, put into his 
own hands.' 

'Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move mere- 
ly as they are moved.' 

'Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition ol life* 
for they are, perhaps, to be your own lot.' 

'Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing that betrays inat- 
tention or ill-humor, are certainly criminal. 

'There are many faults in spelling, which neither analogy nor pro- 
nunciation justify.' 

'When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affect us, the sin- 
cerity of friendship is proved.' 

'Let it be remembered, that it is not the uttering, or the hearing of 
certain words, that constitute the worship of the Almighty.' 
t 'A tart reply, a proneness to rebuke, or a captious and contradic- 
tious spirit, are capable of imbittering domestic life, and of setting 
friends at variance.' 

1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun of different persons, 
are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that person which is 
placed nearest to it; as, 'I or thou art to blame;' 'Thou or I am in fault;' 
'I, thou, or he, is the author of it;' 'George or I am the person.' But i't 
would be better to say, 'Either I am to blame, or thou art,' &c. 

'1. Either thou or I art greatly mistaken, in our judgment on this 
subject.' 

'I or thou am the person who must undertake the business pro- 
posed.' 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and 
a plural one, the verb is made to agiee with the plural noun and pronoun; 
as, 'Neither poverty nor riches icere injurious to him;' 'I or they were of- 
fended by it.' But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can 
conveniently be done, should be placed next to the verb. 

'2. Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was present at the 
transaction.' 

'Some parts of the ship and cargo were recovered; but neither the 
sailors nor the captain, was saved.' 



Rule XXII I. 'Neither character How should this be altered? What 

nor dialogue were yet understood.' is the Rule for it? 

How should this sentence be altered? Note 2. 'I or they were offended ' 

What is the Rule for it? What is wrong in this sentence' 3 

Aote 1. 'I or thou am to blame/ What is the Rule for the correction? 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

'Whether one person or more was concerned in the business, does 
not appear.' 

'The cares of this life, or the deceitfulness of riches, has choked 
the seeds of virtue in many a promising mind.' 

NOTE XYI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule IV. 

A verb in the plural will agree with a collective 
noun in the singular when a part only of the indi- 
viduals are meant : as 'The council were divided 
in their sentiments. 5 When the noun expresses 
the idea of unity the verb should be singular ; as, 
'The council was composed wholly of farmers.' 

We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest the 
idea of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to the mind the idea 
of the whole as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plu- 
ral; in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, 
'The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden 
shoes.' It would be better to say, the peasantry go barefoot, and the mid- 
dle sort make use, &c. because the idea in both these cases, is that of a 
number. On the contrary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, 
in which nouns of number have verbs plural; because the ideas they repre- 
sent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind. 'The court of Rome 
were not without solicitude.' 'The house of commons were of small weight.' 
'The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons.' 'Stephen's 
party were entirely broken up by the captivity of their leader.' 'An army 
of twenty-four thousand were assembled.' 'What reason leave the church 
of Rome for proceeding in this manner.-'' 'There is indeed no constitution 
so tame and careless of their own defence.' 'All the virtues of mankind 
are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are innumer- 
able.' Is not mankind in this place a noun of multitude, and such as re- 
quires the pronoun referring to be in the plural number, their? 

'The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.' 

'The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of 
the shepherd's care.' 

'The court have just ended, after having sat through the trial of a 
very long cause.' 

'The crowd were so great, that the judges with difficulty made their 
way through them.' 

'The corporation of York consist of a mayor, aldermen, and a com- 
mon council.' 

'The British parliament are composed of king, lords and com- 
mons.' 

'When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their 
voice.' 

'In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its 
chief good.' 

'The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment.' 

'The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.' 

'The regiment consist of a thousand men.' 

Note XVI. 'The people rejoices Will you correct tins sentence and 
in. that which should give it sorrow.' <rive the authority for it : 



SYNTAX. 137 

The meeting have established several salutary regulations.' 
'The council was not unanimous, and it separated without coming 
to any determination.' 

'The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety.' 
'This people draweth near to me with their mouth, and honoreth 
me with their lips, but their heart is far from me.' 

'The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred 
the business to the general meeting.' 

'The committee were very full when this point was decided; and 
their judgment has not been called in question.' 

'Why "do this generation wish for greater evidence, when so much 
is already givenl' 

'The remnant of the people were persecuted with great severity.' 
'Never were any people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation.' 
'The shoal of herrings were of an immense extent." 
'No society are chargeable with the disapproved misconduct of par- 
ticular members.' 

RULE V. 
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand, in gender, number and person. 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with; a few of which 
may be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. 'Each of the sexes should 
keep within its particular bounds, and content themselves with the advan- 
tages of their particular districts;' better thus: 'The sexes should keep 
within their particular bounds,' &c. 'Can any one, on their entrance into 
the world, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived?' 'on his en- 
trance,' and 'that he shall.' 'One should not think too favorably of our- 
selves,' 'of one's self,' 'He had one acquaintance which poisoned his 
principles;' 'who poisoned.' 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either ex- 
pressed or implied; as, 'Who is fatal to others is so to himself;' that is, 
% the man who is fatal to others.' 

Who, which, what, and the relative that, though in the objective case, 
are always placed before the verb; as are also their compounds, zchoever t 
whosoever, &c; as, 'He whom ye seek;' 'This is what, orthe thing which, 
or that you want;' 'Whomsoever you please to appoint.' 

What is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears to be exception- 
able: as, 'All fevers, except what are called nervous, &c. It would at 
least be better to say, 'except those xchich are called nervous.' 

'The exercise of reason appears as little in these sportsmen, as in 
the beasts whom they sometimes hunt, and by whom they are some- 
times hunted. 5 

'They which seek wisdom will certainly find her.' 

'The male amongst birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the 
color of its species. 5 

'Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it 
towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh; and it shall become small 
dust. 5 



Rule V. 'One should not think What is. the Rule for it? Are the 

too favorably of ourselves,' How relatives placed before or after th» 

should this sentence be altered ? verb? 

M2. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

'Rebecca took goodly raiment, which were with her in the house, 
and put them upon Jacob.' 

'The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which have lost 
their lives, by this means. 

'The fair sex, whose task is not to mingle in the labors of public 
life, has its own part assigned it to act.' 

'The Hercules man of war foundered at sea; she overset, and lost 
most other men.' 

'The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the 
activity of his thoughts/ 

'What is the reason that our language is less refined than those of 
Italy, Spain, or France?' 

'I do not think any one should incur censure for being tender of 
their reputation.' 

'Thou who hast been a witness of the fact, can give an account of 
it.' 

'In religious concerns, or what is conceived to be such, every man 
must stand or fall by the decision of the Great Judge.' 

'Something like what have been here premised, are the conjectures 
of Dry den.' 

'Thou Great First Cause, least understood ! 

Who all my sense confin'd 
To know but this, that thou art good 

And that myself am blind: 
Yet gave me in this dark estate,' &c. 

'What art thou, speak, that, on designs unknown, 
While others sleep, thus range the camp alone.' 

1. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the noun, arc 
not employed in the same part of a sentence as the noun which they rep- 
resent ; for it would be improper to say, 'The king he is just' : 'I saw her 
the queen' ; 'The men they were there'; 'Many words they darken speech;' 
'My banks they are furnished with bees.' These personals are superfluous, 
as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the same part where 
the principal word is present. The nominative case they, in the following 
sentence, is also superfluous; 'Who, instead of going about doing good, they 
are perpetually intent upon doing mischief.' 

'1. Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously.' 
'The cares of this world they ofton choke the growth of virtue.' 
'Disappointments and afflictions, however disagreeable, they often 
improve us.' 

2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to things; 
but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the pronominal ad- 
jective same, it is generally used in preference to who or which : as 'Charles 
XII. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever 
saw;' 'Cataline's followers were the most profligate that could be found in 
any city.' 'He is the same wan that we s aw before.' There are 'cases 
wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as applied to 
persons : as first, after icho the interrogative ; 'Who that has any sense of 

JVote 1. 'The king he is just.' — that applied, and when is it used in 

Will you correct this sentence and preference to who or which? Give an 

tell why it is wrong? example 

Note 2. To what is the pronoun 



SYNTAX. 139 

religion would have argued thus?' Secondly, when persons make but a 
part of the antecedent ; 'The woman, and the estate, that became his por- 
tion were too much for his moderation." In neither of these examples 
could any other relative have been used. 

» 2. 'Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testa- 
ment.' 

'Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. 
'They are the same persons who assisted us yesterday.' 
'The men and things which he has studied have not improved his 
morals.' 

3. The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, are elegantly di- 
vided by the interposition of the corresponding substantives: thus, 'On 
whichsoever side the king cast his eves ;' would have sounded better, if 
written, 'On which side soever,' &c. 

'3. Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no real merit.' 
'In whatsoever light we view him, his conduct will bear inspection.' 
'On whichsoever side they are contemplated, they appear to ad- 
vantage.' 

'However much he might despise the maxims of the king's admin- 
istration, he kept a total silence on that subject. 5 

4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective case of 
the personal pronouns, in the place of these and those : as, 'Give me them 
books;' instead of Hhose books.' We may sometimes find this fault even 
in writing : as, 'Observe them three there/' We also frequently meet with 
those instead of they, at the beginning of a sentence, and where there is no 
particular reference to an antecedent; as, ' Those that sow in tears, some- 
times reap in joy.' They that, or they who sow in tears. 

It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal pronoun or a 
demonstrative is preferable, in certain constructions.' We are not unacquaint- 
ed with the calumny of them [or those] who openly make use of the warm- 
est professions.' 

'4. Which of them two persons has most distinguished himself!' 
'None more impatiently suffer injuries, than those that are most 
forward in doing them,' 

5. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, and some- 
times we find it in this sense in writing; 'They will never believe but what 
I have been entirely to blame.' 'I am not satisfied but what,' &c. instead 
of 'but that.' The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be 
used improperly. 'These punishments seem to have been exercised in 
somewhat an arbitrary manner. 1 Sometimes we read, 'In somewhat of.' 
The meaning is, 'in a manner which is in some respects arbitrary.' 

'5. He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault.' 
'These commendations of his children, appear to have been made 
in somewhat an injudicious manner. 5 

6. The pronoun relative ioho is so much appropriated to persons, that 
there is generally harshness in the application of it, except to the proper 
names of persons, or the general terms man, woman, &c. A term which 
only implies the idea of persons, and expresses them by some circumstance 
or epithet, will hardly authorize the use of it: as, 'That the faction in Eng- 

Note 3. Will you give an exam- Note 5. Will you give an example 

pie in which the compound pronoun of the improper use of what instead 

whichsoever may be divided with of that? Note 6. liow is the relative 

propriety? icho used? 

Note 4. 'Give me them books/— 
Why is this sentence incorrect? 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

land who most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretentions. ''That faction 
which,' would have been better, and the same remark will serve for the 
following examples: 'France who was in alliance with Sweden.' 'The 
court who, &c. 'The cavalry who,' &c. 'The cities who aspired at lib- 
erty.' 'That party among us who,' &c. The family whom they consider 
as usurpers.' 

In some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is properly ap- 
plied or not; as, 'The number of substantial inhabitants with whom some 
cities abound.' For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, 
it may in many cases claim the personal relative. 'None of the company 
whom he most affected, could cure him of the melancholy under which he 
labored.' The word acquaintance may have the same construction. 

6. f He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him.' 
'Sidney was one of the wisest and most active governors, which 

Ireland had enjoyed for several years. 5 

'He was the ablest minister which James ever possessed.' 

c The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary.' 

C I am happy in the friend which I have long proved.' 

7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives 
us the idea of reason and reflection; and, therefore, the application of the 
personal relative who, in this case, seems to be harsh: 'A child who.' It is 
still more improperly applied to animals: 'A lake frequented by that fowl 
whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water.' 

7. c The child whom we have just seen, is wholesomely fed, and not 
injured by bandages or clothing.' 

'He is like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 5 

8. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does not 
refer to the person, the pronoun who ought not to be applied. 'It is no 
wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, who 
was but another name for prudence and economy.' Better thus: 'whose 
name was but another word for prudence,' &c. The word whose begins 
likewise to be restricted to persons; yet it is not done so generally, but 
that good writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The 
construction is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the fol- 
lowing instances: 'Pleasure, ichose nature,' &c. 'Call every production, 
whose parts and whose nature,' &c. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect 
to persons; and that is when we want to distinguish one person of two, or 
a particular person among a number of others. We should then say, 
^Which of the two,' or '-Which of them is he or she?' 

S. 'Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of 
Nero, who was indeed another name for cruelty.' 

'Flattery, whose nature is to deceive and betray, should be avoided 
as the poisonous adder.' 

'Who of those men came to his assistance!' 

9. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we sometimes 
find an ambiguity in the use of it: as when we say, 'The disciples of Christ, 
whom we imitate,' we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of his 
disciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sentence, depend very much 
upon the proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily 
present its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any ob- 
scurity or ambiguity. 



Note 7. Do we say 'A child who' this sentence and give the Note for 

or 'A child which'? Will you repeat it? 

the Note for this? ./Vote 9. What is remarked in thi* 

Jfote 8. 'The court of queen Eliza- note on the use of the relative pro- 

beth, who' &c; will you correct noun? 



SYNTAX. 142 

9. c The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry; who had 
never before committed so unjust an action. 5 

'There are millions of people in the empire of China, whose sup- 
port is derived almost entirely from rice.' 

10. It is and it icas, are often, after the manner of the French, used in a 
plural construction, and by some of our best writers: as, ( It is either a few 
great men who decide for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a sedi- 
tious ring-leader:' '■It is they that are the real authors, though the soldiers 
are the actors of the revolution/ i It teas the heretics that first began to 
rail,' &c; ' ' Tis these that early taint the female mind.' This license in 
the construction of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all) has, however, 
been certainly abused in the following sentence, which is thereby made a 
very awkward one. i It is wonderful the very few accidents, which, in 
several years, happen from this practice.' 

10. 'It is remarkable his continual endeavors to serve us, notwith- 
standing our ingratitude.' 

'It is indisputably true his assertion, though it is a paradox.' 

11. The interjections 0! Oh! and Ah! require the objective case of a 
pronoun in the first person after them: as, 'O me! Oh me! Ah me!' But 
the nominative case in the second person: as, '0 thou persecutor!' 'Oh ye 
hypocrites!' 'O thou, who dwellest,' &c. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is 
frequently joined in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pronoun of the 
masculine or feminine gender: as. 'It was I;' 'It was the man or woman 
that did it.' 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood; thus we 
say, 'As appears, as follows;' for 'As it appears, as it follows;' and 'May 
be,' for 'It may be.' 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express,. 

1st,. The subject of any discourse or inquiry: as, '/£ ■■ happened' on a sum- 
mer's day;' 'Who is it that calls on me?' 

2d, The state or condition of any person or thing: as, 'Row is it with 
you?' 

3d, The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event, 
or any person considered merely as a cause: as, 'We heard her say it was 
not he;' 'The truth is, it was I that helped her.' 

II. 'Ah! unhappy thee, who art deaf to the calls of duty and of 
honor. 

'Oh! happy we, surrounded with so many blessings. 3 

RULE XXIY. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule VII. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no. 
nominative case comes between it and the verb; as, 'The mas- 
ter who taught us;' 'The trees which are planted.' 

When a nominative case comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own 
member of the sentence; as, 'He w 7 ho preserves me, to whom 
I owe my being, whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal.' 

Note 10. How are it is and it was say 'Oh him?' Why incorrect to say 

often used? Give an example in 'Oh I?' 

which they are used incorrectly in Rule XXIV. Will you correct 

this sense. the first example under this Rule 

JVore 11. Why is it incorrect to and give a reason for it? 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the several members of the last sentence, the relative performs a dif- 
ferent office. In the first member, it marks the agent; in the second, it 
submits to the government of the preposition; in the third, it represents 
the possessor; and in the fourth, the object of an action: and therefore it 
must be in the three different cases, correspondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each to 
different verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and the ante- 
cedent to the latter verb: as, 'True Philosophy, which is the ornament of 
our nature, consists more in the love of our duty, and the practice ol virtue, 
than in great talents and extensive knowledge. 5 

A few instances of erroneous construction, will illustrate both branches 
of the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first part: 'How can 
we avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have 
proved themselves our real friends?' 'These are the men whom, you might 
suppose, were the authors of the work:' 'If you were here, you would find 
three or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably ;' in all 
these places it should be who instead of ichom. The two latter sentences 
contain a nominative between the relative and the verb ; and, therefore, 
seem to contravene the rule ; but the student will reflect, that it is not the 
nominative of the verb with which the relative is connected. The remain- 
ing examples refer to the second part of the rule. 'Men of fine talents are 
not always the persons who we should esteem.' 'The persons who you 
dispute with, are precisely of your opinion.' 'Our tutors are our benefac- 
tors, who we owe obedience to, and who we ought to love.' In these sen- 
tences, whom should be used instead of who. 

'We are dependent on each other's assistance: whom is there that 
can subsist by himself! ' 

'If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish 
him]' 

'They, who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 5 
c It is not to be expected that they, whom in early life have been 
dark and deceitful, should afterwards become fair and ingenuous.' 

'They who have labored to make us wise and good, are the per- 
sons who we ought to love and respect, and who we ought to be 
grateful to. 5 

'The persons, who conscience and virtue support, may smile at 
the caprices of fortune. 5 

'From the character of those who you associate with, your own 
will be estimated. 5 

'That is the student who I gave the book to, and whom, I am per- 
suaded, deserves it. J 

1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun or 
pronoun containing the answer, must be in the same case as that which 
contains the question; as, ' Whose books are these ? They are John's.' 
'Who gave them to him ? We.' 'Of whom did you buy them ? Of a book- 
seller ; him who lives at the Bible and Crown.' ' Whom did you see there? 
Both him and the shopman.' The learner will readily comprehend this 
rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the answers. Thus, 
to express the answers at large, we should say, 'They are John's books.' 
'We gave them to him.' 'We bought them of him who lives, &c.' 'We 
saw both him and the shopman.' As the relative pronoun, when used in- 
terrogatively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the an- 
swer to the question, that word or phrase may properly be termed the sub- 
sequent to the interrogative. 

Note 1. 'Of whom did you buy?' may it be corrected? What is the 
'Of a man, he who lives,' &c. What note for it? 
is. wrong in this sentence and how 



SYNTAX. 143 

1. r 0f whom were the articles boughtl Of a mercer; he who re- 
sides near the mansion-house. ' 

'Was any person besides the mercer present] Yes, both him and 
his clerk.' 

'Who was the money paid to! To the mercer and his clerk. 5 

'Who counted it? Both the clerk and him. 3 

RULE XXV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule VII. 
When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of differ- 
ent persons, the relative and verb may agree in person with ei- 
ther, according to the sense: as, 'I am the man who command 
you;' or, 'I am the man who commands you/ 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences, expresses the 
meaning rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say ; 'I, who 
command you, am the man.' Perhaps the difference of meaning, produced 
by referring the relative to different antecedents, will be more" evident to 
the learner, in the following sentences. 'I am the general who gives the 
orders to-day ; 'I am the general, who give the orders to-day >' that is, 'I, 
who give the orders to-day, am the general.' 

_ When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with 
either of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be preserved 
throughout the sentence ; as in the following instance; 'I am the Lord that 
maketk all things ; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone.' Isa. xliv. 24. 
Thus far is consistent : The Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, 
and the verb agrees with the relative in the thud person : «I am the Lord, 
which Lord, or he that maketk all things.' If /were made the antecedent, 
the relative and verb should agree with it in the first person : as, '/am the 
Lord, that make all things, that stretch forth the heavens alone.' But 
should it follow; ' That spreadeth abroad the earth by myself;' there 
would arise a confusion of persons, and a manifest solecism. 

'I acknowledge that I am the teacher, who adopt that sentiment, 
and maintains the propriety of such measures.' 

'Thou art a friend that hast often relieved me, and that has not de- 
serted me now in the time of peculiar need.' 

'I am the man who approves of wholesome discipline, and who 
recommend it to others; but I am not a person who promotes useless 
severity, or who object to mild and generous treatment.' 

'I perceive that thou art a pupil who possesses bright parts, but 
who hast cultivated them but little. 5 

'Thou art he who breathest on the earth with the breath of spring, 
and who covereth it with verdure and beauty.' 

'1 am the Lord thy God, who teacheth thee to profit, and who lead 
thee by the way thou shouldst go. 5 

'Thou art the Lord who did choose Abraham, and broughtest him 
forth out of Ur of the Chaldees.' 

RULE IV. 

Corresponding to Murray's Grammar, Rule VIII. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de- 
scribe. 



RlleXXV 'lam the man who tence? What to commands in the 

command you. 'I am the man who second? Rule for each? Whv h the 

commands you.' What is the nom- verb of a different person in differ- 

mative to command m the first sen- ent sentences? 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note I. — Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in 
number with the nouns to which they belong. 

1. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited. <I have 
not travelled this twenty years;' 'these twenty.' 'I am not recommending 
these kind of sufferings;' 'this kind.' 'Those set of books was a valuable 
present;' 'that set.' 

'These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind.' 

'Instead of improving yourselves, you have been playing this two 
hours.' 

'Those sort of favors did real injury, under the appearance of kind- 
ness.' 

'The chasm made by the earthquake was twenty foot broad, and 
one hundred fathom in depth.' 

1. The word means in the singular number, and the phrase, 'By this 
means J 'By that means,' 1 are used by our best and most correct writers; 
namely. Bacon , Tillotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele. Pope, &c* They 
are, indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would appear awkward, 
if not affected, to apply the old singular form, and say, 'By this mean; by 
that mean;' it was by a mean'/ although it is more agreeable to the general 
analogy of the language. 'The word means (says Priestley) belongs to 

Rule IV. *I have not travelled this word means used.'' What does Dr. 

twenty years.' How should this be Priestley remark concerning the use 

altered? Why? of this word 3 What other word is 

Note 1. In what number is the used in this manner? 

* 'By this means, he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harrassed 
with a long march. 5 Bacon. 

6 By this means one great restraint from doing evil, would be taken away.' 
'And this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue.* 6 By that means they 
have rendered their duty more difficult.' Tillotson. 

'It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means securing 
the continuance of his goodness.' 'A good character, when established, should not 
be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further good.' 

Atterbury. 

( By this means they are happy in each other.' 'He by that means preserves 
his superiority.' Addison. 

'Your vanity by this means will want its food.' Steele. 

( By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish.' Pope. 

'Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles.' 

Dean Swift. 

'There is no means of escaping the persecution.' 'Faith is not only a means of 
obeying, but a principal act of obedience.' Dr. Young. 

'He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing power.' 

Lord Littelton's Henry II. 

'John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for his 
safety.' Goldsmith. 

'Lest this means should fail.' 'By means of ship-money , the late king,' &c. 
'The only means of securing a durable peace.' Hume. 

' By this means there was nothing left to the Parliament of Ireland,' &c. 

Blackstone. 

( By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters.' 

Dr. Robertson. 

*By this means they bear witness to each other.' Burke. 

( By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself.' Dr. Blair. 

'A magazine, which has, by this means, contained,' &c. 'Birds, in general, 
procure their food by means of their beak.' Dr. Paley. 



SYNTAX. 145 

the class of words, which do not change their termination on account of 
number; for it is used alike in both numbers.' 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the following sentences: 
'Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country; 
and with this amends he was content.' 'Peace of mind is an honorable 
amends for the sacrifices of interest.' 'In return, he received the thanks 
of his employers, and the present of a large estate: these were ample 
amends for all his labors.' 'We have described the rewards of vice: the 
good man's amends are of a different nature.' 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the word means) 
had formerly its" correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derived 
from the French amende, though now it is exclusively established in the 
plural form. If, therefore, it be alleged that mean should be applied in the 
singular, because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kind of 
argument may be advanced in favor of the singular amende; and the gen- 
eral analogy of the language may also be pleaded in support of it. 

Campbell, in his 'Philosophy of Rhetoric,' has the following remark on 
the subject before us: 'No persons of taste will, I presume, venture so far 
to violate the present usage, and consequently to shock the ears of the 
generality of readers, as to say, 'By this mean, by that mean? 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in the singular 
number. They do not, however, speak decisively on the point; but rather 
dubiously, and as if they knew that they were questioning eminent autho- 
rities as well as general practice. That they were not decidedly against 
the application of this word to the singular number, appears from their 
own language : 'Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may be- 
come members of other sentences by means of some additional connexion? 
Dr. Lowth's Introduction to English Gramma?'. 

'There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, 
but by means of something already known.' Dr. Johnson. Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures makes no use, 
as far as the compiler can discover, of the word mean; though there are 
several instances to be found in it of the use of means, in the sense and 
connexion contended for. 'By this means thou shalt have no portion on 
this side the river.' Ezra iv. 16. 'That by means of death, 1 &c. Heb. ix. 
15. It will scarcely be pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes 
did not accurate!}' understand the English language ; or that they would 
have admitted one form of this word, and rejected the other, had not their 
determination been conformable to the best usage. An attempt therefore 
to recover an old word, so long since disused by the most correct writers, 
seems not likely to be successful ; especially as the rejection of it is not 
attended with any inconvenience. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great majority of 
them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its continuance, the 
standard ol language ; especially, if, in particular instances, this practice 
continue after objection and due consideration. Every connexion and 
application of words and phrases, thus supported, must therefore be 
proper and entitled to respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of 
view. 

( Si volet usus 



'Quern penes arhitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi? Hor. 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating from the 
general analogy of the language, than those before mentioned, are to be 

What does Dr. Campbell remark Do Dr. Lowth and Dr. Johnson sp- 
in regard to the use of the phrase prove of the use of means in the sin- 
'By this mean'? gular number? 

N 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

considered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following. 
'None of them are varied to express the gender;' and yet none originally 
signified no one. 'He himself shall do the work :' here, what was at first 
appropriated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative case. 
' You have behaved yourselves well :' in this example, the word you is put 
in the nominative case plural, with strict propriety; though formerly it 
was confined to the objective case, and ye exclusively used for the nom- 
inative. 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus established, 
it is the grammarian's business to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertina- 
ciously opposing the decision of proper authority, and contending for ob- 
solete modes of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical 
sagacity; and, in some degree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear 
and decided ; but he cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, 
or to assist the learner, in discovering and respecting the true standard and 
principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the gramma- 
rian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the ground of 
derivation, analogy, and propriety : and his reasonings may refine and 
improve the language : but when authority speaks out and decides jthe 
point, it were perpetually to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and 
debate. Anomalies then, under the limitation mentioned, become the 
law, as clearly as the plainest analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the 
word mean in the old form has a very uncouth appearance : 'By the wean 
of adversity we are often instructed.' 'He preserved his health by mean of 
exercise.' 'Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency.' They 
should be, 'By means of adversity,' &c. 'By means of exercise,' &c. 'Fru- 
gality is one means ;' &c. 

Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive mean in the singu- 
lar number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, middle rate, 
&c. as, 'This is a mean between the two extremes.' But in the sense of 
instrumentality, it has long been disused by the best authors, and by almost 
every writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when they refer to 
what is singular ; these means and those means, when they respect plurals; 
as, 'He lived temperately, and by this means preserved his health ;' 'The 
scholars were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors; and by 
these means acquired knowledge.' 

We have enlarged on this article that the young student may be led to 
reflect on a point so important, as that of ascertaining the standard of pro- 
priety in the use of language. 

1. 'Charles was extravagant, and by this mean became poor and 
despicable/ 

'It was by that ungenerous mean that he obtained his end.' 

'Industry is the mean of obtaining competency.' 

'Though a promising measure, it is a mean which I cannot adopt.' 

'This person embraced every opportunity to display his talents; 
and by these means rendered himseli ridiculous.' 

'Joseph was industrious, frugal and discreet; and by this means 
obtained property and reputation. 5 

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and there is 
occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that \s used in 

Do good writers make use of the When should 'This means' and 
■ubstantive mean in the singular 'that means' be used? When, These 
nanaber? Give an example. means' and 'those means'? 



SYNTAX. H7 

reference to the former, and this, in reference to the latter: as, 'Self-love, 
which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled hy reason: but for that, 
man would be inactive; and but for this, he would be active to no end.' 

2. Religion raises men above themselves; irreligion sinks them 
beneath the brutes; that, binds them down to a poor pitiable speck 
of perishable earth; this, opens for them a prospect to the skies. 

'More rain falls in the first two summer months, than in the first 
two winter ones; but it makes a much greater show upon the earth 
in those than in these; because there is a much slower evaporation.' 

'Rex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one 
rules his people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his ab- 
solute will and power; this is called freedom; that, tyranny.' 

3. The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, agree with 
the nouns, pronouns and verbs, of the singular number only; "as, 'The 
king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne;' 
'•Every tree is known by its fruit;' unless the plural noun convey a collec- 
tive idea; as, l Every six months;' 'Every hundred years.' The following 
phrases are exceptionable. 'Let each esteem others better than them- 
selves:' it ought to be, 'himself.' 'The language should be both perspicu- 
ous and correct: in proportion as either of these two qualities are warning, 
the language is imperfect;' it should be, 'is wanting.' c Every one of the 
letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment;' 'bears a regu- 
lar date, and contains.' ' Every \o\\n and village were burned; every grove 
and every tree were cut down;' Hcas burned, and zvas cut down.' 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each: as, 'The King of Is- 
rael, and Jehoshaphat the King of Judah, sat either of them on his throne;' 
'Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer.' 
Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately; either properly 
signifies only the one or the other of them, taken disjunctively.' 

3. 'Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which they 
are entitled.' 

'My counsel to each of you is, that you should make it your en- 
deavor to come to a friendly agreement.' 

'By discussing what relates to each particular, in their order, we 
shall better understand the subject.' 

'Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by the duties 
of morality and religion.' 

'Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water, teem with life.' 

'Every man's heart and temper is productive of much inward joy 
or bitterness.' 

( Whatever he undertakes, either his pride or his folly disgust us.' 

'Every man and every woman were numbered.' 

'Neither or those men seem to have any idea that their opinions 
may be ill founded.' 

'When benignity and gentleness reign within, we are always least 
in hazard from without : every person and every occurrence are be- 
held in the most favorable light.' 

f On either side of the river was there the tree of life.' 
4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs: as, 'Indif- 
ferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor;' instead of 'Indifferently 
honest; excellently well; miserably poor.' 'He behaved himself conform- 

Note 2. How are the pronouns either of them on their throne.' Will 

that and this used? you correct this and give the rule 

Note 3. 'The ting of Israel, and for it. ? 
Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

able to that great example:' 'conformably.' 'Endeavor to live hereafter 
suitable to a person in thy station;' 'suitably.'' 'I can never think so very 
mean of him;' 'meanly.' 'He describes this river agreeable to the com- 
mon reading;' 'agreeably.' 'Agreeable to my promise, I now write;' 
'agreeably.' 'Thy exceeding great reward;' when united to an adjective, 
or adverb not ending in ly 1 the word exceeding lias ly added to it; as, 'ex- 
ceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great;' 'exceedingly well, exceedingly 
more active;' but when it is joined to an adverb or adjective, having that 
termination, the ly is omitted; as, 'Some men think exceeding clearly, and 
reason exceeding forcibly;' 'She appeared, on this occasion, exceeding 
lovely.' 'He acted in this business bolder than was expected. 'They be- 
haved the noblest, because they weie disinterested.' They should have 
been, 'more boldly, most nobly.' The adjective pronoun such is often mis- 
applied; as, 'He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his 
whole patrimony in a few years;' it should be, 'so extravagant a young 
man. 1 'I never before saw such large trees;' 'saw trees so large.' When 
we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly ap- 
plied; as, 'Such a temper is seldom found:' but when degree is signified, 
we use the word so; as, 'So bad a temper is seldom found.' 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives; as, 'The tutor ad- 
dressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence;' 'suitable. 
'They were seen wandering about solitarily and distressed;' 'solitary. 
'He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason und religion;' 
'agreeable! 'The study of syntax should be previously to that of punctua- 
tion;' 'previous.' 

4. 'She reads proper, writes very neat, and composes accurate.' 

'He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near ex- 
hausted.' 

'They generally succeeded; for they lived conformably to the rules 
of prudence.' 

'We may reason very clear, and exceeding strong, without know- 
ing that there is such a thing as a syllogism.' 

'He had many virtues, and was exceeding beloved.' 

'The amputation was exceeding well performed, and saved the pa- 
tient's life.' 

'He came agreeable to his promise, and conducted himself suitable 
to the occasion.' 

f He speaks very fluent, reads excellent, but does not think very 
coherent.' 

'He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to 
give offence.' 

'They rejected the advice, and conducted themselves exceedingly 
indiscreetly.' 

c He is a person of great abilities, and exceeding upright; and is 
like to be a very useful member of the community.' 

'The conspiracy was the easier discovered, from its being known 
to many.' 

c Not being fully acquainted with the subject, he could affirm no 
stronger than he did.' 

'He was so deeply impressed with the subject, that few could 
speak nobler upon it. 
■ — , — _ ■ — , — . 

Note 4. Why is 'indifferent hon- warm, but suitably to his offence.' 
est,' an incorrect expression > 'The Will you correct this sentence and 
tutor addressed him in terms rather give a reason for it? 



SYNTAX. 149 

'We may credit his testimony, for he says express, that he saw the 
transaction. 5 

'Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmi- 
ties.' 

'From these favorable beginnings, we may hope for a soon and 
prosperous issue.' 

'He addressed several exhortations to them suitably to their cir- 
cumstances.' 

'Conformably to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence 
of gesture.' 

'We should implant in the minds of youth such seeds and princi- 
ples of piety and virtue, as are likely to take soonest and deepest 
root. 5 

'Such an amiable disposition will secure universal regard.' 

'Such distinguished virtues seldom occur.' 

5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided; such a&, 
'A vvorser conduct;' 'On lesser hopes;' 'A more serener temper;' 'The 
most straitest sect;' 'A more superior work.' They should be, 'worse 
conduct;' 'less hopes;' 'a more serene temper;' 'the straitest sect;' 'a supe- 
rior work.' 

5. ' 'Tis more easier to build two chimnies than to maintain one.' 
'The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser 

weight it carries.' 

'The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than 
those of the imagination, or of sense. 5 

'The nightingale sings: hers is the most sweetest voice in the 
grove.' 

'The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, and for our own 
happiness.' 

'The Supreme Being is the most wisest, and most powerfullest, 
and the most best of beings.' 

6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, do not 
properly admit of the superlative or comparative form superadded: such 
as, 'Chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme,' &c; which are 
sometimes improperly written, 'Chiefest, extremest, perfectest, lightest, 
most universal, most supreme,' &c. The following expressions are, there- 
fore, improper: 'He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices;' 
'The quarrel became so universal and national;' 'A method of attaining 
the Tightest and greatest happiness." The phrases, 'so perfect,' 'so right,' 
'so extreme,' 'so universal,' &c. aie incorrect; because they imply that one 
thing is less perfect, le?s extreme, &c. than another, which is not possible. 

6. 'Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man; and should be 
his chiefest desire. 5 

'His assertion was more true than that of his opponent; nay, the 
words of the latter were most untrue. 

'His work is perfect; his brother's, more perfect; and his father's, 
the most perfect of all.' 

'He gave the fullest and most sincere proof of the truest friend- 
ship.' 

7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of com- 
parison are applied and construed. The following are examples of wrong 

Note 5. 'A worser conduct.' Will Note 6. Is it proper to say 'The 
you correct this sentence aad give joaost perfect work;' why not? 
the Rule for it? 

N2 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

construction in this respect: 'This nohle nation hath, of all others, admitted 
fewer corruptions.' The word fewer is here construed precisely as if it 
were the superlative. It should be, 'This noble nation hath admitted few- 
er corruptions than any other.' We commonly say, 'This is the weaker of 
the two;' or, 'The weakest of the two:' but the former is the regular mode 
of expression, because there are only two things compared. 'The vice of 
covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other.' 'He cele- 
brates the church of England as the most perfect of all others.' Both these 
modes of expression are faulty: we should not say, 'The best of any man,' 
or, 'The best of any other man,' for 'The best of men.' The sentences 
may be corrected by substituting the comparative in the room of the super- 
lative. 'The vice, &c. is what enters deeper into the soul than any other." 
'He celebrates, &c. as more perfect than any other.' It is also possible to 
retain the superlative, and render the expression grammatical. 'Covetous- 
ness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul.' 'He celebrates, &c. as 
the most perfect of all churches. 1 These sentences contain other errors, 
against which it is proper to caution the learner. The words deeper and 
deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have been more deeply, most 
deeply. The phrases more perfect and most perfect, are improper; because 
perfection admits of no degrees of comparison. We mny say, nearer or 
nearest to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

7. C A talent of this kind would, perhaps, prove the likeliest of any 
other to succeed.'* 

'He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. 5 
'He spoke with so much propriety, that I understood him the best 
of all the others who spoke on the subject.' 
'Eve was the fairest of all her daughters.' 

8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their substan- 
tives, even by words which modify their meaning, and make but one sense 
with them: as, 'A large enough number surely.' It should be, 'A number 
large enough.' 'The lower sort of people are good enough judges of one 
not very distant from them.' 

The adjective is usually placed before its substantive: as, 'A gcnerou& 
man;' 'Row amiable a woman!" The instances in which it comes after 
the substantive, are the following: 

1st, When something depends upon the adjective; and when it gives a 
better sound, especially in poetry: hs, 'A man generous to his enemies;' 
'Feed me with food convenient for me,' 'A tree three feet thick;' 'A body 
of troops fifty thousand strong;' 'The torrent tumbling through rocks ab- 
rupt.' ."'.'. 

)2d, When the adjective is emp'infical; as, 'Alexander the Great;' 'Lewie. 
the Bold; 1 'Goodness infinite;' 'Wisdom unsearchable.'' 

3d, When several adjectives belong to one substantive; as, 'A man just, 
wise, and charitable;' 'A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous.' 

4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb; as, 'A boy regularly 
studious;' 'A girl unaffectedly modest.' 

5th, When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between a sub- 
stantive and an adjective, the adjective may frequently either precede or 
follow it; as-, 'The man is liappyy or, 'happy is the man who makes virtue 
his choice;' 'The interview was dcUghtfut; 1 or, delightful was the. inter- 
view!' 

.JVotc 7. In speaking of two per- large enough number'? How should 
sons should we say 'The weaker of it be altered? What is the Note for it' 
the two,' or 'The weakest of the Should the adjective be placed us- 
iwo'? Will you repeat Note 7. ually befoie or after the noun? When 

Xote 8. Is it correct to say *A should it be placed after? 



SYNTAX. 151 

6th, When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a. substantive 
placed after an active verb; as, 'Vanity often renders its possessor despica- 
ble' In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the 
substantive; as, 'How despicable does vanity often render its possessor! 7 

There is sometimes great beautv, as well as force, in placing the adjec- 
tive before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it; as * 'Great is 
the Lord! just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints!' 

'Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particu- 
lars comprehended under it. 'Ambition, interest, honour, all concurred.' 
Sometimes a substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding par- 
ticulars, is used in conjunction with this adjective : as, 'Royalists, republi- 
cans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, all parties, concurred in the illusion. 7 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes properly as- 
sociate with a singular noun : as, 'Our desire, your intention, their resigna- 
tion.' This association applies rather to things of an intellectual nature^ 
than to those which are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general 
rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word 
whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on : 
as, 'An old man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good old 
man.' 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in many in- 
stances, put as if it were absolute; especially where the noun has been 
mentioned before, or easily understood* though not expressed : as 'I often 
survey it.' 

8. 'He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard by the whole 
assembly.' 

'Thomas is equipped with a new pair of shoes, and a new pair of 
gloves : he is the servant of an old rich man.' 

c The two first in the row are cherry trees, the two others are pear 
trees.' 

RULI II* 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule IX. 

The Indefinite Article, a or an, belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 

RULE III. 

The Definite Article the, belongs to nouns o£ 
the singular or plural numbers. 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be iustlv. 
applied, according to their distinct nature : as, 'Gold is corrupting ; the sea 
is green ; a lion is bold.' 

It is the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing spoken 
of. A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it still un- 
certain which : the determines which it is, or if many, which they are. 

The following passage will serve as an example of the different uses of 
a and the, and of the force of the substantive without any article. 'Man 
was made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men: but a man 
will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the men, with whom 
he has the most frequent intercourse : and enter into a still closer union 
with the man whose temper and disposition suit best with his own.' 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to exhi- 



Rule II. What is the nature ofthe termine? What the article the" 
articles? What does the article a de- 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

bit a few instances: 'And I persecuted this way unto the death.' The 
anostle does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general : 
the definite article therefore is improperly used : it ought to be 'unto death,' 
without any article. . 

'When lie, the Spirit of Truth is come, he will guide you into all truth; 
that is, according to this translation, 'into all truth whatsoever, into truth of 
all kinds;' very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from the 
original, 'into all the truth;' that is, 'into all evangelical truth, all truth 
necessary for you to know.' . , , j 

'Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?' it ought to be Hhe wheel, used 
as an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals. 'The 
Almighty hath given reason to a man to be a light unto him:' it should 
rather be, 'to man,'' in general. 'This day is salvation come to this house, for- 
asmuch as he also is the son of Abraham :' it ought to be, 'a son of Abra- 
ham.' . 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance or the proper use 
of the article, and the excellence of the English language in this respect; 
which, by means of its two articles, does most precisely determine the ex- 
tent of signification of common names. 

'The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are tour elements of the 
philosophers.' 

'Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 

'We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and 
from matter.' 

'A man is the noblest work of creation. 5 

'Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. 5 

'Beware of drunkenness; it impairs understanding; wastes an es- 
tate ; destroys a reputation ; consumes the body ; and renders the man 
of the brightest parts the common jest of the meanest clown.' 

'He is a much better writer than a reader.' 

'The king has conferred on him the title of a duke.' 

'There are some evils of life, which equally affect prince and 
people. 5 ■ 

'We must act our part with a constancy, though reward ol our con- 
stancy be distant.' 

'We are placed here under a trial of our virtue. 

'The virtues like his are not easily acquired. Such qualities hon- 
or the nature of a man.' 

'Purity has its seat in the heart; but extends its influence over so 
much of outward conduct, as to form the great and material part of 

'The profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good hus- 
band, the good father, or the beneficent neighbor.* 

'True charity is not the meteor, which occasionally glares ; but the 
luminary, which in its orderly and regular course, dispenses benignant 

influence. 5 

1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis- 
iion of the article a. If I say : 'He behaved with a little reverence ;' my 
meaning is- positive. If I say, 'He behaved with little reverence;' my 
meaning is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be 
used in°the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person ; by the 
latter, I dispraise him. For the sake of this- distinction, which is a very 



Note 1. What is the difference in and we behaved with little rever- 
meaning between the expressions ence ? ? Will you repeat this Note 5 
* We behaved with a little reverence,' 



SYNTAX. 153 

useful one, we may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a be- 
fore nouns of number. When I say, 'There were few men with him ;'g[ 
speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable : where- 
as, when I say, 'There were a few men with him;' I evidently intend to 
make the most of them. 

1. 'He has been much censured for conducting himself with a lit- 
tle attention to his business. 5 

'So bold a breach of order., called for little severity in punishing the 
offender.' 

'His error was accompanied with so little contrition and candid 
acknowledgment, that he found a few persons to intercede for him.' 

'There were so many mitigating circumstances attending his mis- 
conduct, particularly that of his open confession, that he found few 
friends who were disposed to interest themselves in his favor.' 

'As his misfortunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few per- 
sons pitied him.' 

2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of 
two words in the same construction; though the French never fail to re- 
peat it in this case. 'There were many hours, both of the night and day, 
which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought. 5 It might 
have been of the night and of the day .' And, for the sake of emphasis, we 
often repeat the article in a series of epithets. 'He hoped that this title 
would secure him an ample and an independent authority.' 

2. 'The fear of shame, the desire of approbation, prevent many 
bad actions.' 

'In this business he was influenced by a just and generous princi- 
ple. 5 

'He was fired with desire of doing something, though he knew not 
yet, with distinctness, either end or means. 3 

3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit 
the articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially 
in a grave style. 'At worst, time might be gained by this expedient.' 'At 
the worst,' would have been better in this place. 'Give me here John Bap- 
tist "s head.' There would have been more dignity in saying, 'John the 
Baptist's head:' or, 'The head of John the Baptist.' 

The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person by 
an epithet. 'In the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we 
are surprised at not finding him the great man;' '1 own I am often surprised 
that he should have treated so coldly, a man so much the gentleman.' 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, for the 
pronoun possessive : as, 'He looks him full in the face ;' that is, 'in his face.' 
'In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground ;' that is, 
1 their foreheads. 1 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article* 
when the adjective, on account of any clause depending upon it, is put after 
the substantive. 'Of all the considerable governments among the Alps, a 
commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of 
those countries.' 'With such a specious title as that of blood, which with 
the multitude is always a claim, the strongest, and the most easily com- 
prehended.' 'They are not the naen in the nation the most difficult to be 
replaced.' 

JYote2. Is the article to be repeat- gained,' &c. What word may pro- 

ed before two words in the same con- perly be inserted in the beginning ©f 

struction? this sentence? What is the Note^foi. 

Note 3. 'At worst, time might be it? 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. f At worst, I could but incur a gentle reprimand.' 
#< At best, his gift was but a poor offering, when we consider his 
estate.' 

RULE I. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule X. 

The Possessive Case is governed by the follow- 
ing noun. 

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, there 
is no variation of case : as, George, king- of Great Britain, elector of Hano- 
ver,' &c. ; 'Poinpey contended with Caesar, the greatest general of his 
time ;' 'Religion, the support of adveisrty, adorns prosperity.' Nouns thus 
circumstanced arc said to be in apposition to each other. The interposi- 
tion of a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction; as, 'Porn- 
pey contended with Caesar, icho was the greatest general of his time.' Here 
the word general is in the nominative case, according to Rule XV, or Nota 
4, under iCule VIII. 

The proposition of joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to 
the possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can be converted 
into the regular form of the possessive case. We can say, 'The reward of 
virtue/ and 'Virtue's reward:' but though it is proper to say, 'A crown of 
gold,' we cannot convert the expression into the possessive case, and say, 
'Gold's crown.' 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case : 
as, 'Every tree is known by its fruit;' 'Goodness brings Us reward ;' 'That 
desk is mine.'' 

The genitive Us is often improperly used for 'tis or it is: as, 'Its my 
book:' instead of 'It is my book.' 

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to 
be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the 
personal pronoun: as, 'This composition is his.' 'Whose book is that?' 
'Hzs.' If we used the noun itself, we should say, 'This composition is 
John's.' 'Whose book is that?' 'Eliza's.' The position will be still more 
evident, when we consider that both the pronouns in the following senten- 
ces must have a similar construction: 'Is it her or his honour that is tar- 
nished ?' 'It is not hers, but his.' 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case stands alone, 
the latter one by which it is governed being understood: as, 'I called at the 
bookseller's,' that is, 'at the bookseller's shop,' 

'My ancestors virtue is not mine.' 

'His brothers offence will not condemn him.' 

'I will not destroy the city for ten sake.' 

'Nevertheless, Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord.' 

'A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts' for 
mans advantage.' 

'A mans manners' frequently influence his fortune.' 

'Wisdoms precepts' form the good mans interest and happiness.' 

'They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before.' 
'They slew Varus, who was him that I mentioned before.' 
1. If several nouns come together in the genitive case, the apostrophe 
with s is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest: as, 'John and 

Rule I. 'Religion, the support of When is the preposition of joined 

adversity, adorns prosperity.' What to a substantive equivalent to the 

is said of the nouns religion, and possessive case? 
support in respect to each other? 



SYNTAX. 155 

Eliza's books:' 'This was my father, mother and uncle's advice.' Bat 
when any woids intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the 
sign of the possessive should be annexed to each: as, 'They are John's as 
well as Eliza's books;' 'I had the physician's, the surgeon's and the apoth- 
ecary's assistance.' 

1. 'It was the men's, women's and children's lot to suffer great 
calamities.' 

'Peter's, John's and Andrew's occupation, was that of fishermen.' 
'This measure gained the king, as well as the people's approbation.' 
'Not only the counsel's, and attorney's but the judge's opinion al- 
so, favored his cause.' 

2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe 
retained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number ending 
in s: as, 'The wrath of Peleus' son.' This seems not so allowable in 
prose, which the following erroneous example will demonstrate: 'Moses' 
minister;' 'Phinehas' wife;' 'Festus came into Felix' room.' 'These an- 
swers were made to the witness' questions.' But in cases which would 
give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronuncia- 
tion, the omission takes place even in prose: as, 'For righteousness' sake;' 
'For conscience' sake.' 

2. 'And he cast himself down at Jesus feet.' 
• 'Moses rod was turned into a serpent.' 

'For Herodias sake, his brother Philips wife.' 
'If ye suffer for righteousness's sake, happy are ye.' 
'Ye should be subject for conscience's sake.' 

3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a 
genitive case, and the word which usually follows it; as, 'She began to ex- 
tol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding.' It ought 
to be, 'the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him.' 

3. 'They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he was called, 
senseless and extravagant conduct.' 

'They implicitly obeyed the protector s, as they called him, impe- 
rious mandates.' 

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an officej 
or of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the 
other, it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive 
case should be annexed; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. 
Thus, some would say, 'I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller:' others, 
'at Smith the bookseller's:' and perhaps others, at Smith's the bookseller's:' 
The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom; and if the 
addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less dubious; 
as, 'I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer.' But as this 
subject requires a little further explanation to make it intelligible to the 
learners, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to ad- 
mit of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sigrt 
at or near the end of the phrase: as, 'Whose prerogative is it? It is the 
king of Great-Britain's;' 'That is the duke of Bridgevvater's canal;' 'The 

Note 1 . 'John's and Eliza's books.' this sentence and give the rule for it? 

Will you correct this sentence and Note 4. Which is most agreeable 

give the rule for it ? to the English idiom to say 'Smith's 

Note 2. Is the additional 5 ever the bookseller,' or 'Smith the book- 
omitted.'' Give an example. seller's'? When the words are cod- 

Note 3. 'She began to extol the nected and dependent where is the 

farmer's, as she called him, excellent genitive sign to be placed? 
understanding.' Will you correct 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

bishop of Landaff's excellent book;' 'The Lord Mayor of Londoirs autho- 
rity;' 'The captain of the guard house.' 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it 
seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the genitive a sim- 
ilar situation ; especially if the noun which governs the genitive be express- 
ed : as, 'The emperor Leopold's;' 'Dionysius the tyrant's;' 'For David 
my servant's sake ;' 'Give me John the Baptist's head ;' 'Paul the apostle's 
advice.' But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not ex- 
pressed ; and when the latter part of the sentence is extended ; it appears 
to be requisite that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and un- 
derstood to the other: as, '1 reside at lord Stoimont's, my old patron and 
benefactor;' 'Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Caesar's, the great- 
est general of antiquity.' In the following sentences, it would be very awk- 
ward to place the sign, either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end 
of the latter one alone: 'These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and 
prophet of the Jewish people;' 'We staid a month at lord Littleton's, the 
ornament of his country, and the friend of every virtue.' The sign of the 
genitive case may very properly be understood at the end of these mem- 
bers, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being a common construction 
in our language; as the learner will see by one or two examples. 'They 
wished to submit, but he did not; that is, 'he did not wish to submit;' 'He 
said it was their concern, but not his;' that is, ''not his concern.' 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only, 
we shall perceive that a resting place is wanted, and that the connecting 
circumstance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable: 
as 'Whose glory did he emulate?' 'He emulated Caesar, the greatest gene- 
ral of antiquity's:' 'These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet 
of the Jewish people's.' It is much better to say, 'This is Paul's advice, 
the christian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles,' than, 'This is Paul the 
christian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles' advice.' On the other 
hand, the application of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in ap- 
position, would be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some 
cases incorrect: as, 'The emperor's Leopold's;' 'King's George's:' 'Charles 
the second's:' 'The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller's and station- 
tioner's.' The rules which we have endeavoured to elucidate, will prevent 
the inconvenience of both these modes of expression; and they appear to be 
simple, perspicuous, and consistent with the idiom of the language. 

4. 'I bought the knives at Johnson's, the cutler's. 5 

'The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haber- 
dasher's.' 

'Lord Feversham the generals tent.' 
'This palace had been the grand sultan's Mahomet's. 
C I will not for David's thy lather's sake.' 
c He took refuge at the governor, the king's representative's/ 
'Whose works are these'? They are Cicero, the most eloquent of 
men's.' 

5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound; so that we 
daily make more use of the particle of, to express the same relation. There 
is something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method 
has not been taken. 'The general, in the army's name, published a decla- 

When words in apposition follow What is the effect of applying the 

each other in quick succession,where genitive sign to both or all the nouns 

should the sign of the genitive be in apposition? Give an example, 
placed } What effect is perceived if Note 5. 'In the army's name.' — 

we annex the sign of the genitive How may this expression be altered 

to the end of the last clause only of for the better 
the sentence? Give an example. — 



SYNTAX. 157 

Nation.' 'The commons' vote.' 'The Lords' house/ 'Unless he is very 
ignorant of the kingdom's condition.' It were certainly better to say, 'In 
the name of the army;' 'The votes of the commons}' 'The house of lords;' 
'The condition of the kingdom.' It is also rather harsh to use two English 
genitives with the same substantive; as, 'Whom he acquainted with the 
pope's and the king's pleasure.' 'The pleasure of the pope and the king.' 
would have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, 
and connected by the preposition of applied to each of them: as, 'The se- 
verity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation;' but this 
mode of expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to say, 
'The severe distress of the king's son, touched the nation.' We have a 
striking instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the following sen- 
tence: '0/ some of the, books of each of these classes of literature, a cata- 
logue will be given at the end of the work.' 

5. 'The world's government is not left to chance.' 
'She married my son's wife's brother. 5 

'This is my wife's brother's partner's house.' 

'It was necessary to have both the physician's and the surgeon's 
advice.' 

'The extent of the prerogative of the king of England is sufficiently 
ascertained. 5 

6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the preposi- 
tion of: as, 'It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's.' Sometimes indeed, 
unless we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely 
necessary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of proper- 
ty, strictly so called, which is the most important of the relations expressed 
by the genitive case; for the expressions, 'This picture of my friend/ and 
'This picture of my friend's,' suggest very different ideas. The latter only 
is that of property, in the strictest sense"'. The idea would, doubtless, be 
conveyed in a better manner, by saying, 'This picture belonging to my 
friend.' 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not necessa- 
ry to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally 
omitted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowabfe only in 
cases which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same 
kind. In the expressions, 'A subject of the emperor's;' 'A sentiment of 
my brother's;' more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to 
belong to the possessor. But when this plurality is neither intimated, nor 




privilege or the scholar was 
never abused.' But after all that can be said for this double genitive, as 
it is termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the 
use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form of expression! 

6. 'That picture of the king's does not much resemble him.' 
'These pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy.' 
'This estate of the corporation's is much encumbered.' 
'That is the eldest son of the king of England's.' 

7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of 
the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circum- 
stance, the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case; 
thus , instead of saying, 'What is the reason of this person dismissing his* 

NoteQ. Are there any cases in Note 7. 'W r hatis the reason of this 

which we use both the genitive ter- person dismissing his servant so has- 

mination and the preposition of? lily?' Will you correct this sentence 

Give an example. Is this double and give the rule for it : 

genitive ever omitted? O 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

servant so hastily?' that is, 'What is the reason of this person in dismit:- 
his servant so hastily V we may say, and perhaps ought to say, 'What is 
the reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily?' Just as 
we say. 'What is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his ser- 
vant 3 ' So also we say, 'I remember it being reckoned a great exploit;' < r. 
more properly, '1 remember its being reckoned,' &c The following sen- 
tence is correct and proper: 'Much will depend on the pupiVs composing} 
but more on his reading frequently.' It would not be accurate to say, 
'Much will depend on the pupil composing, &c. We also properly say, 
'This will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently >' instead of, 
i Of the pupil composing frequently.' 

7. 'What can be the cause of the parliament neglecting so impor- 
tant a businessl 5 

'Much depends on this rule being observed.' 

'The time of William making the experiment, at length arrived.' 

'It is very probable that this assembly was called, to clear some 
doubt which the king had, about the lawfulness of the Hollanders 
their throwing off the monarchy of Spain, and their withdrawing 
entirely their allegiance to that crown.' 

'If we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall presently be 
sensible of the melody suffering.' 

'Such will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicious com- 
panions.' 

RULE VIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XI. 

Active transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes before 
the verb : and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb ac- 
tive ; and it is the order that determines the case in nouns : as, 'Alexander 
conquered the Persians.' But the pronoun having a proper form for each of 
those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before the 
verb ; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb ; as ? 
6 Whom ye ignorantly w T orship, him declare I unto you.' 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and gov- 
ernment to be neglected : as in the following instances : 'Who shouid I 
esteem more than the wise and good ?' 'By the character of those who you 
choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed.' 'Those are the 
persons who he thought true to his interests.' 'Who should I sec the other 
day but my old friend?' 'Whosoever the court favors.' In all these places 
it ought to be, whom, the relative being governed in the objective case by 
the verbs 'esteem, choose, thought,' &c. 'He, who under all proper cir- 
cumstances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend;' It 
should be 'him, who/ &c. 

Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pronouns. 'He 
sleeps ;* they muse, &c. are not transitive. They are, therefore, not fol- 
lowed by an objective case, specifying the object of an action. But when 
this case, or an object of action, comes after such verbs, though it may 
carry the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected by a prepo- 
sition or some other word understood : as, 'He resided many years [that is, 
for or during many years] in that street;' 'He rode several miles, 
[that is, for or through the space of several miles] on that day;' 'He 
jay an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture.' In the phrases. 

Rule VIII. How is the nomina- govern nouns and pronouns? In the 
tive case usually known in English? phrase, 'He resided many years in 
How the objective? Do neuter verbs that street," how do you parse years? 



SYNTAX. 169 

,r To dream a dream,' 'To live a virtuous life,' 'To run a race,' 'To walk the 
horse,' 'To dance the child,' the verbs certainly assume a transitive form, 
and may not, in these cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs. 

'They, who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has cor- 
rupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature.' 

c You have reason to dread his wrath, which one day will destroy ye 
both.' 
'Who have I reason to love so much as this friend of my youth] ' 
'Ye, who are dead, hath he quickened.' 
' Who did they entertain so freely?' 
'The man who he raised from obscurity, is dead. 5 
'Ye only have I known of all the families of the earth.' 
•'He and they we know, but who are you V 
'She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply.' 
'Who did they send to him on so important an errand?' 
'That is the friend who you must receive cordially, and who you 
cannot esteem too highly.' 

'He invited my brother and I to see and examine his library." 
'He who committed the offence, you should correct, not I who am 
innocent.' 

'We should fear and obey the author of our being, even He who has 
power to reward or punish us forever.' 

'They who he had most injured, he had the greatest reason to love.' 
1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter veibs as if they were tran- 
sitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the French con- 
struction of reciprocal verbs; but this custom is so foreign to the idiom of 
the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The fol- 
lowing are some instances of this practice. 'Repenting him of his design/ 
'The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous 
enemies. 5 'The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the 
subject.' 'The nearer his successes approached him to the throne.' 'Go 
flee thee away into the land of Judah.' 'I think it by no means a fit and 
decent thing to vie charities,' &c. 'They have spent their whole time and 
pains to agree the sacred with the profane chronology.' 

1. 'Though he now takes pleasure in them, he will one day repent 
him of indulgencies so unwarrantable.' 

'The nearer his virtues approached him to the great example before 
him, the humbler he grew.' 

'It will be very difficult to agree his conduct with the principles he 
professes. 5 

2. Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter; as, 'I must 
premise with three circumstances.' 'Those who think to ingratiate icith 
him by calumniating me; 

2. 'To ingratiate with some by traducing others, marks a base and 
despicable mind.' 

'I shall premise with two or three general observations.' 
3* The neuter verb is varied like the active; but, having in some degree the 
nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form, re- 
taining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some 
sort of motion, or change of place or condition: as, 'I am come; I was gone: 
'I am grown:' I was fallen.' The following examples, however, appear to be 
erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an active one. 
'The rule of our holy religion, from which we are infinitely swerved.' 'The 

Note 1. 'Repenting him of his de- shows this sentence to be incorrect? 
sign.' Will you repeat the note which 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

whole obligation of that law and covenant, was also ceased.* * Whose num- 
ber icas now amounted to three hundred.' c This mareschal, upon some 
discontent, teas entered into a conspiracy against his master.' 'At the end 
of a campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed.' It should be, 
c have swerved, had ceased,' &c. 

3. If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what has become of 
decency and virtue!' 

'I have come according to the time proposed; but I have fallen 
upon an evil hour.' 

'The mighty rivals are now at length agreed.' 

'The influence of his corrupt example was then entirely ceased. 

c He was entered into the connexion before the consequences were 
considered.' 

Rule XV. When two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying 
the same thing, come together, they are put by apposition in the same case. 

[p 3 The examples which follow may be corrected by this Rule or the fol- 
lowing Note. 

4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it, 
as that which next precedes it: 'Jam he whom they invited;' l It may be 
(or it might have been) he, but it cannot be (or could not have been) J:' 
'/£ is impossible to be they:' 'It seems to have been he, who conducted him- 
self so wisely:' It appeared to be she that transacted the business;' 'I un- 
derstood it to be him:' 'I believe it to have been them:' 'We at first took 
it to be her: but were afterwards convinced that it w T as not she. 1 'He is 
not the person icho it seemed he was.' 'He is really the person who he ap- 
peared to be.' 'She is not now the woman whom they represented her to 
have been.' ' Whom do you fancy him to be?' By these examples, it ap- 
pears that this substantive verb has no government of case; but serves, in 
all its forms, as a conductor to the cases; so that the two cases which, in 
the construction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always 
be alike. Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible to the learner, by 
observing, that the words in the cases preceding and following the verb to 
be, may be said to be in apposition to each other Thus, in the sentence, 
c l understood it to be him,' the words it and him are in apposition; that is, 
'they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case.' 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and exhibit 
the pronoun in a wrong case: 'It might have been him, but there is no proof 
of it:' 'Though I was blamed, it could not have been me:' 'I saw one 
whom I took to be she:' 'She is the person, who I understood it to have 
been;' l Who do you think me to be?' 'Whom do men say that I am?' 'And 
whom think ye that I am?' 

Passive verbs which signify naming,. &c. have the same case before and 
after them: as, 'He was called Caesar; She was named Penelope; Homer 
xs styled the prince of poets; James was created a duke; The general was 
saluted emperor; The professor was appointed tutor to the prince.' 

4. * c Well may you be afraid; it is him indeed.' 

Note 2. 'I must premise with these Note 3. 'I am come.' Why should 
circumstances.' Will you correct this not this be 'I have come'? 
sentence and give the rule for it? Rule XV or Note 4. 'I am him 

♦When the verb to be is understood, it has the same case before and af- 
ter it, as when it is expressed: as, 'He seems the leader of the party;' 'He 
shall continue steward;' 'They appointed me executor;' 'I supposed him a 
man of learning;' that is, 'He seems to be the leader of the party/ &c. 
Nouns in apposition are in the same case: as, 'We named the man Pom- 
pey;' 'They may term Charles a visionary, but they cannot call him ade- 
ceiver;' 'Hortentius died a mArtyr;' 'The gentle Sidney lived the shep- 
herd's friend.' 



SYNTAX. 161 

-I would a<?t the same part if I were him, or in his situation. 5 
'Search the scriptures, for jn them ye think ye have eternal life; 

and they are them which testify of me. 5 

c Be composed: it is me: you have no cause for fear.' 

C I cannot tell who has befriended me, unless it is him from whom I 

tiave received many benefits. 5 

C I know not whether it were them who conducted the business; 

but I am certain it was not him."' 

c He so much resembled my brother, that, at first sight, I took it to 

be he.' 

c After all their professions, is it possible to be them!' 

'It could not have been her, for she always behaves discreetly.' 

c If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been]' 

'Who do you think him to be]' 

'Whom do the people say that we are]' 

5. The auxiliary let governs the objective case: as, 'Let him beware;' 

'Let us judge candidly;' 'Let them not presume;' 'Let George study his 
, lesson.' 

5. 'Whatever others do, let thou and I act wisely.' 
'Let them and we unite to oppose this growing evil/ 

RULE Xlf. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XII. 

The Infinitive Mood may be governed by verbs, 
participles, adjectives, nouns and pronouns. 

The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is 
sometimes properly. omitted: as, 'I heard him say it;' instead of l to say it.' 

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them, in the in- 
finitive mood, without the sign to, are, 'Bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, 
feel;' and also 'let,' not used as an auxiliary; and perhaps a few others; 
as, 'I bade him do it;' 'Ye dare not do it;' 'I saw him do it;' 'I heard him 
say it;' 'Thou lettest him go.' 

f It is better live on a little, than outlive a good deal. 9 

'You ought not to walk too hastily.' 

*I wish him not wrestle with his happiness.' 

*I need not to solicit him to do a kind action.' 

C I dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence. ' 

'I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves very dis- 
creetly.' 

] . In the following passages-; the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood, 
where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous and improper. 
'I have observed some satirists to use,' &c. 'To see so many to make so 
little conscience of so great a sin.' 'It cannot but be a delightful specta- 
cle to God and angels, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temp- 
tations on every side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold 
out against the most violent assaults; to behold one in the prime and flow- 
er of his age. that is courted by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all 



whom they invited.' Will you cor- verbs which have commonly other 

rectthis sentence and give the rule verbs in the infinitive mood after 

for it? them without the sign to? 

Noted. 'Let us judge candidly.' Note I. 'I have observed some sat- 
in what case is us? What is the rule? irists to use,' &c. What ijs incorrect 

Rule XII. Will you name the in this sentence? 
02 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave stead- 
fastly unto God.' 

This mood has also been improperly used in the following places: 'I am 
not like other men, to envy the talents I cannot reach.' 'Grammarians 
have denied, or at least doubted, them to be genuine.' 'That all our do- 
ings may be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in 
thy sight.' 

The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and 
participles: as, 'lie is eager to learn;* 'She is worthy to be loved;' 'They 
have a desire to improve;' 'Endeavoring to persuade.' 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, expressing 
the action itself which the verb signifies, as the participle has the nature of 
an adjective. Thus the infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in 
different cases: in the nominative; as, 'To play is pleasant;' in the objec- 
tive; as, 'Boys love to play;' 'For to will is present with me; but to per- 
form that which is good, I find not.' 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on 
the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with 
the potential mood: as, 'To confess the truth, I was in fault;' 'To begin 
with the first;' 'To proceed;' 'To conclude;' that is, 'That 1 may con- 
fess,' &c. 

1. 'It is a great support to virtue, when we see a good mind to 
maintain its patience and tranquillity, under injuries and affliction, 
and to cordially forgive its oppressors.' 

'It is the difference of their conduct, which makes us to approve 
the one, and to reject the other. 5 

'We should not be like many persons, to depreciate the virtues we 
do not possess.' 

'To see young persons who are courted by health and pleasure, to 
resist all the allurements of vice, and to steadily pursue virtue and 
knowledge, is cheering and delightful to every good mind.' 

'They acted with so much reserve, that some persons doubted them 
to be sincere.' 

'And the multitude wondered, when they saw the lame to walk, 
and the blind to see.' 

RUL.E XXVI. 

Corresponding to Murray's Grammar, Rule XIII. 

In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate 
to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed. 
Instead of saying, 'The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath 
taken away/ we should say, 'The Lord gave, and the Lord 
hath taken away.' Instead of, 'I remember the family more 
than twenty years/ it should be, 'I have remembered the family 
more than twenty years.' 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the moods 
and tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper 
and consistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one: 

In the expression 'He is eager to truth I was in fault.' How is 'To 

learn,' will you parse 'to learn'? — confess' parsed? What is the rule for 

What is the rule? 'To play is pleas- it? 

ant.' Will you parse 'to play' and Rule XXVI. 'I intended to have 

give a rule for it? 'To confess the written.' Will you point out the in- 



SYNTAX. 163 

c To observe what the sense necessarily requires.' It may, however, be of 
use to give a few examples of irregular construction. 'The last week I in- 
tended to have written, is a very common phrase; the infinitive being in 
the past time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong; 
for now long soever it now is since I thought of writing, 'to write' was then 
present to me, and must still be considered as present, when I bring back 
that time, and the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, 'The last week 
I intended to write.' The following sentences are also erroneous: 'I can- 
not excuse the remissness of those whose business it should have been, as 
it certainly was their interest, to have interposed their good offices.' There 
were two circumstances which made it necessary for them to have lost no 
time.' 'History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such 
a species of beings.' They ought to be, Ho interpose, to lose, to invent. 1 
'On the morrow, because he should have known the certainty, wherefore 
he was accused of the Jews, he loosed him.' ^ It ought to be, 'because he 
would know,' or rather, 'being willing to know.' 'The blind man said 
unto him, Lord, that I might receive my sight.' 'If by any means I might 
attain unto the resurrection of the dead;' 'may,' in both places, would have 
been better. 'From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Scrip- 
tures with great attention;' Ho have studied,' &c. 'I feared that I should 
have lost it, before I arrived at the city;' 'should lose it.' 'I had rather 
walk;' It should be, 'I would rather walk.' 'It would have afforded me 
no satisfaction, if I could perform it;' it should be, 'if I could have per- 
formed it;' or, 'It would afford me no satisfaction, if I could perform it.' 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in 
the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often carry with them 
a future sense; and that the auxiliaries should and would, in the imperfect 
times, are used to express the present or future as well as the past. 
'The next new year's day I shall be at school three years.' 
c And he that was dead, sat up, and began to speak. 5 
'I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me in that particular. 5 
'And the multitude wondered, when they saw the dumb to speak, 
the maimed to be whole, the lame walk, and the blind seeing. ' 

*I have compassion on the multitude, because they continue with 
me now three days.' 

'In the treasury belonging to the Cathedral in this city, is preserved 
with the greatest veneration, for upwards of six hundred years, a dish 
which they pretend to be made of emerald.' 

'The court of Rome gladly laid hold on all the opportunities, which 
the imprudence, weakness, or necessities of princes, afford it, to ex- 
tend its authority.' 

'Fierce as he moved his silver shafts resound.' 

'They maintained that scripture conclusion, that all mankind rise 
from one head.' 
'John will earn his wages, when' his service is completed/ 
'Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life.' 
'Be that as it will, he cannot justify his conduct.' 
'I have been at London a year, and seen the king last summer.' 
'After we visited London, we returned, content and thankful, t* 
our retired and peaceful habitation.' 

1. It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infinitive mood in the 
following form; 'to write,' 'to be writing,' and 'to be written,' always de- 
correctness of this sentence and give him.' Will you correct this sentence 
a.rule for it? an( i g i ve a ru i e f or \ x ? 

JYoU 1. 'I expected to have found 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

note something contemporary with the time of the governing verb, or sub- 
sequent to it: but when verbs of that mood ate expressed -as follows; 'To 
aave been writing/ 'to have written/ and c to have been written,' they always 
denote something \ antecedent io the time of the governing verb. This re- 
mark is thought to be of importance; for if duly attended to, it will, in most 
cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative application of these tenses. 

The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed: 'I found 
him better than I expected to find him.' 'Expected to have found him,' is 
irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive 
of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the 
present, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive 
an error in this expression; 'It is long since I commanded him to have done 
it:' Yet 'expected to have found,' is no better. It is as clear that the find- 
ing must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be 
posterior to the command. 

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the per- 
fect tense of the infinitive mood; 'It would have afforded me great pleasure, 
as often as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelli- 
gence.' As the message, in this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, 
and not contemporary with it, the verb expressive of the message must 
denote that antecedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If the 
message and the pleasure had been referred to as contemporary, the subse- 
quent verb would, with equal propriety, have been put in the present of the 
infinitive: as, 'It would have afforded me great pleasure, to be the messen- 
ger of such intelligence.' In the former instance, the phrase in question is 
equivalent to these words; 'If I had been the messenger;' in the latter in- 
stance, to this expression; ' Being the messenger.' 

It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the past time 
with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive must always be 
used: as, 'He ought to have done it.' When we use this verb, this is the 
only possible way to distinguish the past from the present. 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce the 
sentiments of eminent grammarians; amongst whom are Lowth and Camp- 
bell. But there are some writers on grammar, who strenuously maintain, 
that the governed vetb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when 
the verb which governs it, is in. the past time. Though this cannot be ad- 
mitted, in the instances which are controverted under this rule, or in any 
instances of a similar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases, 
in which the thing referred to preceded the governing verb, it would be 
proper and allowable. We may say; 'From a conversation I once had 
with him, he appeared to have studied Homer with great care and judg- 
ment/ It would be proper also to say, *From his conversation, he appears 
to have studied Homer with great care and judgment. ' 'That unhappy 
man is supposed to have died by violence.' These examples are not only 
consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is the tense 
of the governing verb only, that mark>s what is called the absolute time; 
the tense of the verb governed, marks solely its relative time with re- 
ipect to the other. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood have no 
tenses, no relative distinctions of present, j)ast and future, is inconsistent 
with just grammatical views of the subject That these verbs associate 
with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of 
their own. Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether present, 
past, or future, the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that 
period, and its time is calculated fiom it. Thus, the time of the infinitive 

What tense of the infinitive must defective yerb ought ? Give an ex- 
be nsed to express past time with the ample. 



SYNTAX. 165 

may be before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, accord- 
ing as the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or 
present with the thing denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore 
with great propriety, that tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. 
The point of time from which they are computed is of no consequence; 
since present, past, and future, are completely applicable to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking, that 
though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after the gov- 
erning verb, yet there are particular cases in which it would be better to 
give the expression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, 'I wish to 
have written to him sooner,' 'I then wished to have written to him sooner/ 
'He will one day wish to have written sooner;' it would be more perspicu- 
ous and forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, 
to say; 'I wish that I had written to him sooner,' 'I then wished that I had 
written to him sooner,' 'He will one day wish that he had written sooner/ 
Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, there would still be nu- 
merous occasions for the use of the past infinitive; as we may perceive by 
a few examples. 'It would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure, 
to have found him wise and virtuous.' 'To have deferred his repentance 
longer, would have disqualified him for repenting at all.' 'They will then 
see, that to have faithfully performed their duty, would have been their 
greatest consolation.' 

1 . C I purpose to go to London in a few months, and after I shall 
finish my business there, to proceed to America.' 

'These prosecutions of William seem to be the most iniquitous 
measures pursued by the court during the time that the use of par- 
liaments was suspended. 5 

'From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have 
been a man of letters. 5 

'I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his 
merit.' 

'It would, on reflection, have given me great satisfaction, to relieve 
him from that distressed situation.' 

'It required so much care, that I thought I should have lost it be- 
fore I reached home. 5 

'We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.' 

c He would have assisted one of his friends, if he could do it with- 
out injuring the other; but as that could not have been done, he 
avoided all interference. 

'Must it not be expected, that he would have defended an authority, 
which had been so long exercised without controversy! 

'These enemies of Christianity were confounded, whilst they were 
expecting to have found an opportunity to have betrayed its author. 5 

'His sea sickness was so great, that I often feared he would have 
died before our arrival,' 

'If these persons had intended to deceive, they would have taken 
care to have avoided what would expose them to the objections of 
their opponents.' 

'It was a pleasure to have received his approbation of my labors; 
for which I cordially thanked him. 5 

'It would have afforded me still greater pleasure, to receive his ap- 
is it proper ever to use the perfect verb? Give an example, 
of the infinitive after the governing 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

probation at ati earlier period : but to receive it at all, reflected credit 
upon me.' 

'To be censured by him, would soon have proved an insuperable 
discouragement.' 

'Him portion'd maids, apprenticed orphans blest, 
The young who labor, and the old who rest.' 

'The doctor, in his lecture, said, that fever always produced thirst.' 

RULE XIV. 
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XIV. 

Active Participles from active transitive verbs 
govern the objective case. 

'Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools.' 

'Suspecting not only ye, but they also, I was studious to avoid all 
intercourse.' 

'I could not avoid considering, in some degree, they as enemies to 
me; and he as a suspicious friend. 

'From having exposed hisself too freely, in different climates, he 
entirely lost his health.' 

1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article; for the present 
participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive, and 
must have the preposition of after it: as, 'These are the rules of grammar, 
by the observing of which, you may avoid mistakes.' It would not be 
proper to say, 'By the observing which;' nor, 'By observing of which;' 
but the phrase, without either article or preposition, would be right; as, 
'By observing which.' The article a or an has the same effect; as, 'This 
was a betraying of the trust reposed in him.' 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as 
plain a principle as any on which it is founded; namely, that a word which 
has the article before it, and the possessive preposition of after it, must be a 
noun; and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and 
not to have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this 
sort of words that is apt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they 
were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs.' 

The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule. 'He was 
sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance;' it ought to be, 'By 
the preaching of repentance;' or, 'By preaching repentance.' 'By the con- 
tinual mortifying our corrupt affections:' it should be, 'By the continual 
mortifying of,' or, 'By continually mortifying our corrupt affections. 
'They laid out themselves towards the advancing and promoting the good 
of it:' 'towards advancing and promoting the good.' 'It is an overvaluing 
ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities;' 
*it is overvaluing ourselves,' or, 'an overvaluing of ourselves.' 'Keeping 
of one day in seven,' &c; it ought to be, 'the keeping of one day;' or, 
^keeping one day.' 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle and the 
possessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the 
same meaning, as would he conveyed by the participle without the article 
and preposition. 'He expressed the pleasure he had in the heaiing of the 
philosopher,' is capable of a different sense from, 'He expressed the pleasure 
he had in hearing the philosopher.' When, therefore, we wish, for the 

Rule XIV. Note 1. 'By the ob- in this sentence may be omitted with 
«er7ing of which.' Will you parse propriety? Would it be proper to 
observing? Rule for it? What words omit one of them only? 



SYNTAX. 167 

sake of harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseologies for the 
other, we should previously consider whether they are perfectly similar in 
the sentiments they convey. 

1. 'By observing of truth, you will command esteem, as well as se- 
cure peace. 

'He prepared them for this event, by the sending to them proper 
information/ 

'A person may be great or rich by chance; but cannot be wise or 
good without the taking pains for it.' 

'Nothing- could have made her so unhappy, as the marrying a man 
who possessed such principles. 

'The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings, 
belong to Providence alone.' 

'The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously sit- 
uated for gaining of wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon 
the supplying our wants; and rickes upon the enjoying our superflu- 
ities.' 

'Pliny, speaking of Cato the Censor's disappproving (he Grecian 
orators, expressed himself thus.' 

'Propriety of pronunciation is the giving to every word that sound, 
which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it. 5 

'The not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very common error.' 

'This was in fact a converting the deposite to his own use. 5 

2. The same observations which have been made respecting the effect of 
the article and particle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and partici- 
ple, when they are similarly associated: as, 'Much depends on their ob- 
serving of the rule, and error will be the consequence of their neglecting of 
it,' instead of 'their observing the rule, and their neglecting it.' We shall 
perceive this more clearly if we substitute a noun°fbr the pronoun: as, 
'Much depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule,' &c. But, as this con- 
struction sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express 
the sentiment in the following, or some other form: 'Much depends on the 
rule's being observed', and error will be the consequence on its beino- neg- 
lected:' or. 'on observing the rule; and, of neglecting it.' This remark 
may be applied to several other modes of expression, "to be found in this 
work; which, though they are contended for as strictly correct, are not al- 
ways the most eligible, on account of their unpleasant sound.' 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the following: 'Informing of 
his sentences, he was very exact:' 'From calling of names, he proceeded 
to blows.' But this is incorrect language; for prepositions do not, like ar- 
ticles and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a sub- 
stantive; as we have shown above in the phrase, 'By observing which.' 
And yet the participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substan- 
tive phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, ex- 
pressed or understood: as, 'By promising much, and performing hit little. 
we become despicable.' 'He studied to avoid expressing himself too se- 
verely.' 

2. 'There will be no danger of their spoiling their faces, or of their 
gaining converts.' 

'For his avoiding that precipice, he is indebted to his friend 5 s care.' 

f It was from our misunderstanding the directions, that we lost our 
way.' 

Note 2. 'Much depends on their of were omitted? Will you repeat 
observing of the rule.' Would this the note? 
sentence be correct if the preposition 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

'In tracing of his history, we discover little that is worthy of imi- 
tation.' 

'By reading of books written by the best authors, his mind became 
highly improved.' 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes diffe- 
rent in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. 
It is frequently said, 'He begun,' for 'he began;' 'he run,' for 'he ran;' 'He 
drunk,' for 'he drank;' the participle being here used instead of the imper- 
fect tense: and much more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the 
participle: as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;' 'I was chose,' for 'I was 
chosen;' I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.' 'His words were interwove with 
sighs;' 'were interwoven. 1 'He would have spoke;' 'spoken.' 'He hath 
bore witness to his faithful servants;' 'borne.' 'By this means he over-run 
his guide;' over-ran.' 'The sun has rose;' 'risen.' 'His constitution has 
been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be shook by such causes;' 
'shaken,' in both places. 'They were verses wrote on glass;' 'written' 
'Philosophers have often mistook the source of true happiness:' it ought to 
be 'mistaken-' 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing 
ed into t: as, 'In good behavior, he is not surpast by any pupil of the 
school.' 'She was much distrest.' They ought to be 'surpassed,' 'distressed.' 
3. 'By too eager pursuit, he run a great risk of being disappointed." 
'He had not long enjoyed repose, before he began to be weary of 
having nothing to do.' 
'He was greatly heated, and drunk with avidity. 5 
'Though his conduct was, in some respects, exceptionable, yet he 
dared not commit so great an offence, as that which was proposed to 
him.' 

'A second deluge learning thus o'er-run: 
And the monks finish'd what the Goths begun.' 
*Tf some events had not fell out very unexpectedly, I should have 
been present.' 

'He would have went with us, had he been invited. 5 
'He returned the goods which he had stole, and made all the re- 
paration in his power. 5 
'They have chose the part of honor and virtue.' 
'His vices have weakened his mind, and broke his health. 5 
'He had mistook his true interest, and found himself forsook by 
his former adherents.' 

'The bread that has been eat is soon forgot.' 
'No contentions have arose amongst them since their reconciliation. 
'The cloth had no seam, but was wove throughout.' 
'The French language is spoke in every state in Europe.' 
'His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight opposition. 5 
'He was not much restrained afterwards, having took improper 
liberties at first.' 

'He has not yet wore off the rough manners, which he brought 
with him.' 
c You who have forsook your friends, are entitled to no confidence.' 
'They who have bore a part in the labor, shall share the rewards.' 

Note 3. Is it correct to say 'He be- the participle ending in ed, be con- 
gun?' What is wrong in the express- traded to t, with propriety? 
ion? Will you repeat Note 3? Can 



SYNTAX. 169 

€ When the rules have been wantonly broke, there can be no plea 
for favor.' 

'He writes as the best "authors would have wrote, had they writ on 
the same subject.' 

'He heapt up great riches, but past his time miserably.' 

'He talkt and stampt with such vehemence, that he was suspected 
to be insane.' 

RUL.E XXVII. ' 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XV. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of 
case, tense &c. require an appropriate situation in 
the sentence, viz. for the most part, before adjec- 
tives, after verbs active or neuter, and frequently 
between the auxiliary and the verb : as, 'He made 
a very sensible discourse; he spoke unaffectedly and 
forcibly, and id as attentively heard by the whole as- 
sembly. 5 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate 
the rule. k He must not expect to find study agreeable always;' ''always 
agreeable.' 'We always find them ready when we want them;' 'we find 
them alio ays ready,' &c. 'Dissertations on the prophecies which have 
remarkably been fulfilled;' 'which have been remarkably.' 'Instead of 
looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should 
look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better;' 'instead of looking 
down contemptuously, &c. we should thankfully look up,' &c. 'If thou 
art blessed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it,' 'natu- 
rally blessed,' &c. 'exercise it continually.' 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at 
some distance after it; sometimes between the two auxiliaries; and some- . 
times after them both; as in the following examples. 'Vice alioays creeps 
by degrees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by 
which we are at last completely bound.' 'He encouraged the English bar- 
ons to carry their opposition farther.' 'They compelled him to declare 
that he would abjure the realm forever; instead of, 'to carry farther their 
opposition;' and 'to abjure forever the realm.' 'He has generally been 
reckoned an honest man.' 'The book may alioays be had at such a place;' 
in preference to 'has been generally;' and 'may be always.' 'These rules 
will be clearly understood, after they have been diligently studied,' is pre- 
ferable to, 'These rules will clearly be understood after they have diligent- 
ly been studied.' 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no exact and 
determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions. 
The general rule may be of considerable use; but the easy flow and per- 
spicuity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds 
nothing to the sense; in which case it precedes the verb and the nomina- 
tive noun: as, 'There is a person at the door;' 'There are some thieves in 

Rule XX VII. What word is mis- tion of adverbs? How is the adverb 

placed in the sentence, 'He must sometimes placed with respect to 

not expect to find study agreeable the verb? With respect to the ami!* 

always'? Will you correct the sen- iary? 
tence and give "the Rule for the posi- 
P 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the house;' which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, 'A 
person is at the door;' 'Some thieves are in the house.' Sometimes, it is 
made use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence: as, 'There 
was a man sent from God, whose name was John.' When it is applied in 
its strict sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative case; as ; 
'The man stands there* 

'He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.' 
'William nobly acted, though* he was unsuccessful.' 
'We may happily live though our possessions are small.' 
'From whence we may date likewise the period of this event.' 
'It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore, to remonstrated 
'He offered an apology, which not being admitted, he became sub- 
missive.' 

'These things should be never separated.' 

'Unless he have more government of himself, he will be always dis- 
contented.' 

'Never sovereign was so much beloved by the people.' 
'He was determined to invite back the king, and to call together 
his friends.' 

'So well educated a boy gives great hopes to his friends.' 
c Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also.' 
'We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure.' 
'It is impossible continually to be at work.' 
'The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually.' 
'Having not known, or having not considered, the measures pro- 
posed, he failed of success.' 

'My opinion was given on rather a cursory perusal of the book.' 
'It is too common with mankind, to be engrossed, and overcome 
totally, by present events.' 

'W hen the Romans were pressed with a foreign enemy, the women 
contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily, to assist the govern- 
ment.' 

1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb; as, 'I never was 
there;' 'He never comes at a proper time.' When an auxiliary is used, 
it is placed indifferently, either before or after this adverb: as, 'He was 
never seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." Never seems 
to be improperly used in the following passages. 'Ask me never so 
much dowry and gift.' ' If I make my hands never so clean.' 'Charm 
he never so wisely.' The word ever would be more suitable to the sense. 

1. 'They could not persuade him, though they were never so eloquent' 
'If some persons' opportunities were never so favorable, they 
would be indolent to improve them.' 

2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where, is often 
used instead of the pronoun relative, and a preposition. 'They framed a 
protestation, where they repeated all their former claims;' i. c. Hn which 
they repeated.' 'The king was still determined to run forwards, in the 
same course wherehe was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally ad- 
vanced;' z. e. Hn which he was.' But it would be better to avoid this 
mode of expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition; for they sig- 
nify 'from this place, from that place, from what place.' It seems, therefore, 
strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them, because 

Note 1. How is the adverb never example where the word never is 
generally placed with respect to tho improperly used instead of ever? 
erb- Give an example. Give an 



SYNTAX. 171 

it is superfluous: as, 'This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of our 
age are said to borrow their weapons;.' 'An ancient author prophecies from 
hence.' But the origin of these words is little attended to, and the prepo- 
sition from so often used in construction with them, that the omission of it, 
in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs Acre, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs 
signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither: as, 'He 
came here hastily;' 'They rode herewith speed.' They should be, 'He 
came hither;'' 'They rode thither," 1 &c. 

2. 'He drew up a petition, where he too freely represented his own 
merits.' 

'His follies had reduced him to a situation where he had much to 
fear, and nothing to hope.' 

'It is reported that the prince will come here to-morrow. 5 
'George is active; he walked there in less than an hour.' 
'Where are you all going in such haste! 3 
'Whither have they been since they left the cityV 

3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives: 'In 
1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since when, it has begun 
to increase in those countries as a religious order;' i. e. 'since which time. 1 
'A little while and I shall not see you;' i. e. 'a short time. 1 'It is worth 
their while;' i.e. 'it deserves their time and pains.' But this use of the 
word rather suits familiar than grave style. The same may be said of the 
phrase 'To do a thing anyhow:'' i. e. 'in any manner;' or, 'somehow:'' i. e. 
'in some manner.' 'Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are under 
the influence of prejudice.' 

3. Charles left the seminary too early, since when he has made 
very little improvement.' 

'Nothing is better worth the while of young persons, than the ac- 
quisition of knowledge and virtue.' 

RULE XIX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XVI. 

Two negatives, in the same sentence, are equiv- 
alent to an affirmative; as, 'Nor did they not per- 
ceive him : 5 i. e. 'They did perceive him. 5 

It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular affirmative, than by 
two separate negatives, as in the former sentence: but when one of the 
negatives is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two nega- 
tives form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression.' 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one; 
as in the following instances: 'I never did repent of doing good, nor shall 
not now;' 'nor shall I now.' 'Never no imitator grew up to his author:' 
'never did any,'' &c. 'I cannot by no means allow him what his argument 
must prove:' 'I cannot by any means,' &c; or, { I can hy no means.' 'Nor 
let no comforter approach me;' 'nor let any comforter,' &c. 'Nor is dan- 
ger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we commonly 
apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes:' it should be, 'any more.' 

Note 2. 'They framed a protesta- Rule XIX. Should we express an 

tion where they repeated all their affirmation by an affirmative or by 

former claims.' Will you correct two separate negatives? Will you give 

this sentence and repeat Note 2? an example of the improper use of 

Note 3. Will you repeat this note two negatives? 
and give an example under it? 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

'Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not bom in repub- 
lics.' 'Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was 
born in a republic.' 

'Neither riches nor honors, nor no such perishing goods, can satis- 
fy the desires of an immortal spirit. 5 

'Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.' 

c We need not, nor do not, confine his operations to narrow limits. 

C I am resolved not to comply with the proposal, neither at present, 
nor at any other time.' 

'There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.' 

'Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct ot her 
child.' 

'Do not interrupt me yourselves, nor let no one disturb my retire- 
ment.' 

s These people do not judge wisely, nor take no proper measure to 
effect their purpose.' 

'The measure is so exceptionable, that we cannot by no means 
permit it.' 

'I have received no information on the subject, neither from him 
nor from his friend.' 

'Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example.' 

'The king nor the queen was not all deceived in the business.' 

RULE X. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XVII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of 
the objective. 'Who servest thou under?' ' Who do you speak to?' 'We 
are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to?' 'Who dost thou ask 
for?' 'Associate not with those who none can speak well of.' In all these 
places it ought to be k wliom' 

The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before the pro- 
nouns: as, 'Give me the book;' 'Get me some paper: that is, 'tome,' 'for 
me.' 'Wo is me;' i. e. Ho me.' 'He was banished England;' i. c. from 
England.' 

'We are all accountable creatures, each for hisself.' 

'They willingly, and of theirselves, endeavored to make up the 
difference. ' 

'He laid the suspicion upon somebody, I know not w r ho, in the 
company.' 

'I hope it is not I who he is displeased with.' 

'To poor we, there is not much hope remaining. 5 

'Does that boy know who he speaks to! Who does he offer such 
language to! 5 

'It was not he that they were so angry with. 5 

'What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes, and 
they who abhor them! 5 

'The person who I travelled with, has sold the horse which he rode 
on during our journey. 5 



Rule X. 'Who do you speak to'? the book.' What is understood in this 
Will you correct this sentence, and sentence? 

explain why it is wrong? 'Give me Note 1. Wdl you repeat this Note 

and give an example under it? 



SYNTAX. 173 

v It is not I he is engaged with. 5 

'Who did he receive that intelligence fromT 

1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it governs; 
as, 'Whom wilt thou give it to?' instead of, ' To whom wilt thou give it?' 
'He is an author whom I am much delighted with:' 'The world is too po- 
lite to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the 
first that inform them of.' This is an idiom to which our language is 
strongly inclined; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well 
with the familiar style in writing: but the placing of the preposition before 
the relative, is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees 
much better with the solemn and elevated style.' 

1. 'To have no one whom we heartily wish well to, and whom 
we are warmly concerned for, is a deplorable state.' 

'He is a friend whom I am highly indebted to. 5 

2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to con- 
nect different prepositions with the same noun: as, 'To suppose the zodiac 
and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves.' This, wheth- 
er in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should gen- 
erally be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and ex- 
actness of expression must take place of every other consideration, it may 
be admitted. 

2. 'On these occasions, the pronoun is governed by, and conse- 
quently agrees with, the preceding word. 5 

'They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven from, the 
house. 3 

3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by differ- 
ent prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. 
Thus we say, 'To converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house,' &c. 
We also say, 'We are disappointed of a thing,' when we cannot get it, 
*and disappointed in it,' whop we have it, and find it does not answer our 
expectations. But two different prepositions must be improper in the same 
construction, and in the same sentence: as, 'The combat beticeen thirty 
French against twenty English.' 

In some cases it is difficult to say, to which of two prepositions the 
preference is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and custom has 
not decided in favor of either of them. We say, 'Expert at,' and 'Expert 
in a thing.' 'Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes;' 'Expert in de- 
ception.' 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same 
that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived: as, 'A 
compliance with,' 'to comply with? 'A disposition to tyranny,' 'disposed 
to tyrannize.' 

3. 'We are often disappointed of things, which, before possession, 
promised much enjoyment. 5 

'I have frequently desired their company, but have always hitherto 
been disappointed in that pleasure. 5 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great im- 
portance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of improprie- 
ty in the application of this part of speech. 

1st, With respect to the preposition of 'He is resolved of going to the 
Persian court;' c on going,' &c. 'He was totally dependent of the Papal 

Note 2. Is it correct to separate Note 3. Do we express different 
the preposition from the noun which relations and different sense by the 
it governs? When may it be admit- same, or a different preposition? 
ted? 

P2 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

crown; 5 'on the Papal,' &o. 'To call of a person,' and 'to woit of him; 
'on a person,' &c. 'He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citi- 
zens;' in recommending,' &c. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes 
inserted, after icorthy: as, 'It is worthy observation,' or, 'of observation.' 
But it would have been better omitted in the following sentences. 'The 
emulation, who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among 
them, but of who should obtain the most lucrative command.' 'The rain 
hath been falling of a long time;' 'falling a long time.' 'It is situation 
chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men;' 'decides the 
fortune, ' or, 'concerning the fortune.' He found the greatest difficulty of 
writing;' 'in writing.' k It might have given me a greater taste of its an- 
tiquities.' A taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste for 
it, implies only a capacity for enjoyment. 'This had a much greater share 
of inciting him, than any regard after his father's commands;' 'share in 
inciting,' and 'regard to his father's,' &c. 

2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. — 'You have bestowed 
your favors to the most deserving persons;' 'upon the most deserving*, ' &c. 
'He accused the ministers for betraying the Jiutch:' 'of having betrayed.' 
'His abhorrence to that superstitious figure;' l of that,' &c. 'A great 
change to the better;' for the better.' 'Your prejudice to my cause;' 
'a&ainst.' 'The English were very different people then to what they are 
at present;' from what, 1 &c. 'In compliance to the declaration;' 'with,' 
&c. 'It is more than they thought for;' 'thought of.' 'There is no need 
for it;' 'of it.' For is superfluous in the phrase, 'More than he knows for. 1 
No discouragement for the authors to proceed;' '/o the authors,' &c. 'it 
was perfectly in compliance to some persons;' 'icith.' 'The wisest princes 
need not think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their 
sufficiency, to rely upon counsel;' 'diminution of." and 'derogation from.' 

3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon. — 'Reconciling him- 
self with the king.' 'Those things which have the greatest resemblance 
with each other, frequently differ the most.'* 'That such rejection should 
be consonant with our common nature.' 'Conformable with,' &c. 'The 
history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts.' In all the above in- 
stances, it should be 'to,' instead of 'with.' 'Jt is a use that perhaps I 
should not have thought on;' 'thought of.' 'A greater quantity may be 
taken from the heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it; 'in 
it.' 'Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could confide;' 'in whom.' 
'He was made much on at Argos;' 'much of.' 'If policy can prevail upon 
force;' 'over force.' 'I do likewise dissent with the examiner;' from.' 

4th, With respect to the prepositions m, from, &c. 'They should be 
informed in some parts of his character;' 'about' or 'concerning.' 'Upon 
such occasions as fell into their cognizance;' 'under.' v That variety of fac- 
tions into which we are still engaged;' 'in which.' 'To restore myself into 
%he favor;' l ta the favor.' 'Could he have profited from his repeated experi- 
ences;' 'by.' 'From seems to be superfluous after forbear: as, 'He could 
not forbear from appointing the pope,' &c. 'A strict observance after times 
and fashions;' 'of times.' 'The character which we may now value ourselves 
by drawing;' 'upon drawing.' 'Neither of them shall make me sweiveout 
of the path;' from the path.' 'Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and 
swallow a camel;' it ought to he, 'which strain out a gnat, or, take a gnat 
put of the liquor by straining it.' The impropriety of the preposition has 
wholly destroyed the meaning of the phrase. 

Note 4. 'He is resolved of going 'Reconciling himself with the king, 
fco the Persian Court.' Wil) you cor- What inaccuracy is therein this sen- 
ted thia sentence? 'You have be^ tence? 'They should be informed int 
stowed your favors to the most de- some parts of his character.' Wiiij 
serving persons,' How should this, you correct this sentence? 
sentence be altered 3 



SYNTAX. 17* 

The preposition among generally implies a number of things. It cannot 
be properly used in conjunction with the word every, which is in the sin- 
gular number: as, 'Which is found among every species of liberty;' Ths 
opinion seems to gain ground among every body.' 

4. 'She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. 5 

( Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding.' 

'There was no water, and he died for thirst.' 

( We can fully confide on none but the truly good. 5 

'I have no occasion of his services. 5 

'Many have profited from good advice. 5 

'Many ridiculous practices have been brought in vogue/ 

'The error was occasioned by compliance to earnest entreaty. ' 

'This is a principle in unison to our nature.' 

'We should entertain no prejudices to simple and rustic persons.' 

'They are at present resolved of doing their duty/ 

'That boy is known under the name of the Idler/ 

'Though conformable with custom, it is not warrantable. 5 

'This remark is founded in truth. 5 

'His parents think on him, and his improvements, with pleasure 
and hope!' 

'His excuse was admitted of by his master. 5 

'What went ye out for to seel' 

'There appears to have been a million men brought into the field/ 

'His present was accepted of by his friends. 5 

'More than a thousand of men were destroyed. 5 

'It is my request that he will be particular in speaking to the fol- 
lowing points. 5 

'The Saxons reduced the greater 'part of Britain to their own 
power. 5 

'He lives opposite the royal exchange. 5 

'Their house is situated to the north-east side of the road. 5 

'The performance was approved of by all who understood it. 5 

'He was accused with having acted unfairly/ 

'She has an abhorrence to all deceitful conduct. 5 

'They were some distance from home, when the accident hap- 
pened. 5 

'His deportment was adapted for conciliating regard. 5 

'My father writes me very frequently. 5 

'Their conduct was agreeable with their profession/ 

'We went leisurely above stairs, and came hastily below. We 
shall write up stairs this forenoon, and down stairs in the afternoon. 5 

'The politeness of the world has the same resemblance with bene- 
nevolence, that the shadow has with its substance/ 

'He had a taste of such studies ,and pursued them earnestly. 5, 

'When we have had a true taste for the pleasures of virtue, we 
can have no relish for those of vice. 5 

'How happy is it to know how to live at times by one's self, to leave 
one's self in regret, to find one's self again with pleasure. The 
world is then less necessary for us/ 

'Civility makes its way among every kind of persons. 5 

JSote 5. How is the preposition to ed as prepositions? Give an «xam= 
used with nouns of place? Give an pie. 
example. Are participles ever us- 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The proposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they 
follow verbs and participles of motion: as, 'I went to London;' 'I am going 
to town' But the proposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to 
be: as, I have been at London;' 'I was at the place appointed;' 'I shall be 
at Paris;' We likewise say: 'He touched, arrived at any place.' The 
proposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns: as, 'He lives 
in France, in London, or in Birmingham.' But before villages, single 
houses, and cities which are in distant countries, at is used; as,L'He lives 
at Hackney;' 'He resides at Montpelier.' 

'It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pronoun one another, 
whether the preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or be- 
fore them both. We may say, 'They were jealous of one another;' or, 
'They were jealous one of another;' but perhaps the former is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions: as, excepting, respecting, 
touching, concerning, according. *They were all in fault except or except- 
ing him.' 

5. C I have been to London, after haying resided a year at France; 
~and I now live at Islington.' 

' 'They have just landed in Hull, and are going for Liverpool. They 
intend to reside some time in Ireland. 3 

RULE XI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XVIII. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the 
same case. 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display 
its utility. 'If he prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his professions, he 
will succeed;' 'if he prefers.' 'To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is 
inhuman; and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian;' 'and to 
want compassion.' 'The parliament addressed the king, and has been pro- 
rogued the same day;' 'and was prorogued.' 'His wealth and him bid 
adieu to each other;' 'and he.' He entreated us, my comrade and I, to 
live harmoniously;' 'comrade and me.' 'My sister and her were on good 
terms;' 'and she. 1 'We often overlook the blessings which are in our pos- 
session, and are searching after those which are out of our reach;' it ought 
and to be search after.' 

'Professing regard, and to act differently, discover a base mind.* 

'Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him. 5 

'My brother and him are tolerable grammarians.' 

'If he understand the subject, and attends to it industriously, he 
can scarcely fail of success.' 

'Ycu and us enjoy many privileges. 

'If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray, 
doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, 
and seeketh that which is gone astrayT 

'She and him are very unhappily connected.' 

'To be moderate in our views, and proceeding temperately in the 
pursuit of them, is the best way to ensure success.' 

'Between him and I there is some disparity of years; but none be- 
tween him and she.' 



Rule XI. 'His wealth and him correct this sentence and gi?e the 
bid adieu to each other.' Will you mle for Conjunctions? 



SYNTAX. 177 

c By forming themselves on fantastic models, and ready to vie with 
one another in the reigning follies, the young begin with being ridicu- 
lous, and end with being vicious and immoral.' 

1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different moods 
and tenses of verbs: but in these instances the nominative must generally, 
if not always, be repeated, which is not necessary, though it may be done ; 
under the construction to which the rule refers. We may say, 'He lives 
temperately, and he should live temperately;' 'He may return, but he will 
not continue:' 'She was proud, though she .is now humble:' but it is obvi- 
ous, that in such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated; and that, by 
this means the latter members of these sentences are rendered not so strictly 
dependent on the preceding, as those are which come under this rule. 
When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the 
negative form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or nomi- 
native is always resumed: as, 'He is rich, but he is not respectable. ' There 
appears to be , in general, equal reason for repeating the nominative, and re- 
suming the subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted by a change 
of the mood or tense. The following sentences may therefore be improv- 
ed. 'Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the 
bosom of fools;' 'but rests only;' or, ''butit will rest only.' 'Virtue is prais- 
ed by many, and would be desired also, if her worth were really known;* 
'and she would.' 'The world begins to recede, and will soon disappear. ' 
' and it will.' 

1. We have met with many disappointments; and, if life continue^ 
$hall probably meet with many more.' 

e Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce virtue. 5 
'He does not want courage, but is defective in sensibility.' 
c These people have indeed acquired great riches, but do not com- 
mand esteem.' 

'Our seasons of improvement is short; and, whether used or not^ 
will soon pass away.' 

' He might have been happy, and is now fully convinced of it.' 
'Learning strengthens the mind; and, if properly applied, will im- 
prove our morals too,' 

RULE XXVIII, 
Corresponding to Murray's Grammar, Rule XIX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, some 
the subjunctive mood, after them. It is a general 
rule, that when something contingent or doubtful 
is implied, the subjunctive ought to be used: as, 
'If 1 were to write, he would not regard it; 5 'He 
will not be pardoned, unless he repenV 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute 
nature require the indicative mood. 'As virtue 
advances, so vice recedes:' 'He is healthy, because 
he is temperate. 5 

Note 1. Do Conjunctions ever be repeated in such instances? Giv® 
connect different moods and tenses an example, 
of verbs? What case must generally 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 178 

The conjunctions, if, though, unless, except, whether, &c. generally re- 
quire the subjunctive mood alter them: as, i If thou be afflicted, repine not;' 
'Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him;' 'He cannot be clean, unless 
lie wash himself;' 'No power, except it \cere given from above;' ''Whether 
it were I or they, so we preach.' But even these conjunctions, when the 
sentence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative;' as, '-Though he is 
poor, he is contented.' 

The following example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate the dis- 
tinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods.' 'Though he 
were divinely inspired, and spoke theieibre as the oracles of God, with su- 
preme authority; though he were endued with supernatural powers, and 
could, therefore, have confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by miracles; 
yet, in compliance with the way in which human nature and reasonable crea- 
tures are usually wrought upon, he reasoned.' That our Savior was divinely 
inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here 
taken for granted, as not admitting the least doubt; they would therefore have 
been butter expressed in the indicative mood: 'Though he was divinely 
inspired; though he was endued with supernatural powers. 1 he subjunc- 
tive is used in the like improper manner in the following example: ' Though 
he icere a son, yet learned he obedience, by the things which he suffered.' 
ISut, in a similar passage, the indicative, with great propriety, is employed 
to the same purpose; ' Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became 
poor.' 

'If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind, and be useless 
to others. 5 

'Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply, unless 
he advances more forcible reasons.' 

'I shall walk in the fields to-day, unless it rains. 5 
'As the governess were present, the children behaved properly. 5 
'She disapproved the measure, because it were very improper.' 
'Though he be high, he hath respect to the lowly. 5 
'Though he were her friend, he did not attempt to justify her con- 
duct. 5 
'Whether he improve or not, I cannot determine.' 
'Though the fact be extraordinary, it certainly did happen.' 
'Remember what thou wert, and be humble.' 
'0! that his heart was tender, and suscepibie of the woes of others.' 

'Shall then this verse to futuie age pretend, 
Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend?" 

1. Lest, and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily require 
the subjunctive mood: as, 'Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty;' 'Re- 
prove not a scorner, lest he hate thee;' 'Take heed that thou speak not to 
Jacob.' 

If with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunc- 
tive mood: as, 'If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke;.' 'If he be 
but discreet, he will succeed.' But the indicative ought to be used, on this 
occasion, when future time is not signified: as, 'If, in this expression he 
does but jest, no offence should be taken;' 'If she is but sincere. I am hap- 
py.' The same distinction applies to the following forms of expression: 'If 
lie do submit, it will be from necessity;' 'Though he does submit, he is not 
convinced;' 'If thou do not reward this service, he will be discouraged;' 
If thou dost heartily forgive him, endeavor to forget the offence.' 

Rule XXVIII. What conjunctions mood after them? 
generally require the subjunctive 



SYNTAX. 179 

1. 'Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be your own.' 
c Let him that is sanguine, take heed lest he miscarries. 

Take care that thou breakest not any of the established rules,' 
'If he does but intimate his desire, it will be sufficient to produce 

obedience. 5 
'At the time of his return, if he is but expert in the business, he 

will find employment.' 

'If he do but speak to display his abilities, he is unworthy of atten^ 

tion.' 
'If be be but in health, 1 am content. 5 
'If he does promise, he will certinlya perform/ 
'Though he do praise her, it is only for her beauty.' 
'If thou dost not forgive, perhaps thou wilt not be forgiven/ 
'If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act accordingly.' 

2. In the following instances, the conjunction that, expressed or under- 
stood, seems to be improperly accompanied with the subjunctive mood. 'So 
much she dreaded his tyranny, that the fate of her friend she dare not la- 
ment.' 'tie reasoned so artfully that his friends would listen, and think 

[that] he were not wrong.' 

2. His confused behavior made it reasonable to suppose that he 
were guilty. 5 

'He is so conscious of deserving the rebuke, that he dare not make 
any reply. 5 

'His apology was so plausible, that many befriended him, and 
thought he were innocent. 5 

3. The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunc - 
tive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to 
be afgreat impropriety; as in these instances. '//* there be but one body of 
legislators, it is no better than a tyranny; if there are only two, there will 
want a casting voice.' '//" a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is 
gone astray,' &c. 

3. If one man prefer a life of industry, it is because he has an idea 
of comfort in wealth; if another prefers a life of gayety it is from a 
like idea concerning pleasure. 5 

'No one engages in that business, unless he aim at reputation, or 
hopes for some singular advantage. 5 

'Though the design be laudable, and is favorable to our interest, it 
will involve much anxiety and labor.' 

4. Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any language, have 
arisen from the ellipsis of some words, which were originally inserted in 
the sentence, and made it regular; and it is probable, that this has generally 
been the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words, now in use,, 
which will appear from the folowing examples: 'We shall overtake him 
though he run:' that is, 'though he should run', 1 'Unless he act prudently, he 
will not accomplish his purpose;' that is, 'unless he shall act prudently.' 'If 
he succeed and obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it;' that is, 
'If he should succeed and should obtain his end.' These remarks and ex- 
ampiesare designed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive 
forms of expression; and to enable the student to examine the propriety of 
using them, by tracing the words in question to their proper origin and an- 



Note I. When do lest and that re- junctive? When the indicative? 
quire the subjunctive mood after Note 2. Will you repeat this note 
them? When does if require the sub- and give an example under it? 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cient connexions. But it is necessary to be more particular on this subject , 
and therefore we shall add a few observations respecting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the 
subjunctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by varying 
the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative; 
as will be evident from the following examples: 'It thou prosper, thou 
shouldst be thankful;' 'Unless he study more closely, he will never be 
learned.' Some writers however, would express these sentiments without 
those variations; 'If thou pro sparest,' 1 &c: 'Unless he studies,' &c: and 
as there is great diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer the 
learners a tew remarks, to assist them in distinguishing the right applica- 
tion of these different forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule , 
that the changes of termination are necessary, when these two circumstan- 
ces concur: 1st. When the subject is of a dubious and contingent nature; 
and, 2d. When the verb bus a reference to future time. In the following 
sentences, both these circumstances will be found to unite: 'If thou injure 
another, thou wilt hurt thyself;' 'He, has a hard heart; and if he continue im- 
penitent, he must suffer;' 'He will maintain his principles, though he lose 
his estate;' 'Whether he succeed or not, his intention is laudable;' 'If he 
be not prosperous, he will not repine;' 'If a man smite his servant, and he 
die,' &c. Exod. xxi, 20. In all these examples, the things signified by the 
verbs are uncertain, and refer to future time. But in the instances which 
follow, future time is not referred to; and therefore a different construction 
takes place; 'If thou livest virtuously, thou art happy;' 'Unless he means 
what he says, he is doubly faithless;' 'If he alUncs the excellence of virtue, 
he does not regard her precepts;' 'Though he seems to be simple and art- 
less, he has deceived us;' 'Whether virtue is better than rank or wealth, 
admits not of any dispute;' 'If thou believest with all thy heart, thou mayst,' 
&c. Acts viii, 37. There are many sentences, introduced by conjunctions, 
in which neither contingency nor futurity is denoted: as, 'Though he excels 
her in knowledge, she far exceeds him in virtue.' 'I have no doubt of his 
principles: but if he believes the truths of religion, he does not act according 
to them.' 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are necessary, 
as tests of the propriety of altering the terminations, will be evident, by in- 
specting the following examples: which show that there are instances in 
which neither of the circumstances alone implies the other. In the three 
examples following, contingency is denoted, but not futurity. 'If he thinks 
as he speaks, he may safely be trusted.' 'If he is now disposed to it, I will 
perform the operation.' 'He acts uprightly, unless he deceives me .' In the 
following sentences, futurity is signified, bu t not contingency. 'As soon as 
the sun sets, it will be cooler.' 'As the autumn advances, these birds 
will gradually emigrate.' 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the rules above 
mentioned may be extended to assert, that in cases wherein contingency 
and futurity do not concur, it is not proper to turn the veib from its signifi- 
cation of present time, or to vary its form or termination. The verb would 
then be in the indicative mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it. If 
these rules, which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunc- 
tive and the. indicative moods in this tense, were adopted and established 
in practice, we should have, on this point, a principle of decision simple 

Note 3. May the same conjunction the subjunctive mood a future signi- 

have both the subjunctive and indie- fication? How is this effected? What 

ative moods after it in the same sen- two circumstances should concur to 

tence? Give an example of this im- render necessary this change of ter- 

propriety. mination? 

Note 4. Has the present tense of 



SYNTAX. 181 

and precise, and readily applicable 10 every case that might occur. It will, 
doubtless, sometimes happen, that, on this occasion, as well as on many 
other occasions, a strict adherence to grammatical rules, would render the 
language stiff and formal: but when cases of this sort occur, it is better to 
give the expression a different turn, than violate grammar for the sake of 
ease, or even of elegance. 
4. 'Unless he learns faster, he will be no scholar. 5 
'Though he falls, he shall not be utterly cast down.' 
'On condition that he comes, I will consent to stay,' 
'However that affair terminates, my conduct will be unimpeach- 
able.' 

'If virtue rewards us not so soon as we desire, the payment will be 
made with interest.' 

'Till repentance composes his mind, he will be a stranger to peace.' 
'Whether he confesses or not, the truth will certainly be discovered.' 
'If thou censurest uncharitably, thou wilt be entitled to no favor.' 
'Though, at times, the ascent to the temple of virtue appears steep 
and craggy, be not discouraged. Persevere until thou gainest the 
summit: there, all is order, beauty and pleasure. 5 

'If Charlotte desire to gain esteem and love, she does not employ 
the proper means.' 

'Unless the accountant deceive me, my estate is considerably im- 
proved.' 

'Though self-government produce some uneasiness, it is light when 
compared with the pain of vicious indulgence.' 

'Whether he think as he speaks, time will discover.' 
'If thou censure uncharitably, thou deservest no favor.' 
'Though virtue appear severe, she is truly amiable.' 
'Though success be very doubtful, it is proper that he endeavors to 
succeed.' 

5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the subjunc- 
tive mood, it seems proper to make a few observations. Some writers ex- 
press themselves in the perfect tense as follows: 'If thou have determined, 
we must submit:' 'Unless he have consented, the writing will be void:' but 
we believe that few authors of critical sagacity write in "this manner. ' The 
proper form seems to be, 'If thou hast determined; unless he has consent- 
ed,' &c. conformably to what we generally meet with in the bible: 'I have 
surnamed thee, though thou hast not known me.' Isaiah xlv. 4 5. 'What 
is the hope of the hypocrite, though he hath gained,' &c. Job xxvii. 8. See 
also Jlcts xxviii. 4. 

5. 'If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement.' 
'Though behave proved his right to submission, he is too generous 

to exact it. 5 

'Unless he have improved, he is unfit for the office. 5 

6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet with such ex- 




cess.' This mode of expressing the auxiliaries does not appear to be war- 
ranted by the general practice of correct writers. They should be hadst, 

Should the termination be changed we must submit.' How should this 

when futurity and contingency do sentence be altered? 

not concur? What mood will the Jfote 6. 'If thou will undertake the 

ve ™ ! h( L n ^ T V n / , business there is little doubt of sue- 

JYoteb. 'If thou have determined cess.' Is this mode of expression 

Q 



1S2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

shalt and wilt; and we find them used in this form, in the sacred Scriptures: 
'If thou hadst known,' &c. Luke xix. 47. 'If thou hadst been here, &c. 
John xi. 21. 'If thou wilt, thou canst make me clean.' Malt. viii. 2. Sec 
also, II. Sam. ii. 27; Jlfall. xvii. 4. 

6. 'If thou had succeeded, perhaps thou wouldst not be the hap- 
pier for it. 

'Unless thou shall see the propriety of the measure, we shall not 
desire thy support. 5 

'Though thou will not acknowledge, thou canst not deny the fact.' 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive 
mood, is also veiy frequently varied in its termination: as, 'If thou loved 
him truly, thou wouldst obey him;' 'Though thou did conform, thou hast 
gained nothing by it.' This variation, however, appears to be improper. 
Our present version of the scriptures, which we again refer to, as a good 
grammatical authority in points of this nature, decides against it. 'If thou 
Lnewesl the gift,' &c. John iv. 10. 'If thou didst receive it, why dost thou 
glory?' &c. 1 Cor. iv. 7. See also Dun. v. 22. But it is proper to re- 
mark that the form of the yerbto be, when used subjunctively in the imper- 
fect tense, is indeed very considerably and properly varied from that which 
it has in the imperfect of the indicative moud; as the learner will perceive 
by turning to the conjugation of that verb. 

7. 'If thou gave liberally, thou wilt receive a liberal reward. 5 
'Though thou did injure him, he harbors no resentment.' 

'It would be well, if the report was only the misrepresentation of 
her enemies.' 

'Was he ever so great and opulent, this conduct would debase 
him. 5 

'Was I to enumerate all her virtues, it would look like flattery.' 

'Though I was perfect, yet would I not presume.' 

8. It may not be supeifluous also to observe, that the auxiliaries of the 
potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termi- 
nation of the second person singular. We properly say, 'If thou inayst or 
canst go;' 'Though ihou mightst live;' 'Unless thou couldst read;' 'If thou 
wouldst learn;' and not 'If thou may or can go,' &c. It is sufficient on 
this point, to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth; 'if thou shouldst 
go;' Johnson. 'If thou mayst, mightst, or couldst love;' Lowth. Some 
authors think that when that expresses the motive or end, the termination 
of these auxiliaries should be varied; as, 'I advise thee, that thou may be- 
ware;' 'He checked thee, that thou should not presume:' but there does 
not appear to be any ground for this exception. If the expression of 'con- 
dition, doubt, contingency,' &c. does not warrant a change in the form of 
these auxiliaiies, why should they have it, when a motive or end is express- 
ed? The translators of the scriptures do not appear to have made the dis- 
tinction contended for. 'Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be their 
king;' JVeh. vi. 6. 'There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayst be 

, feared.' Psa. exxx. 4. 

From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears, that with re- 
spect to what is termed the present tense of any verb, when the circum- 
stances of contingency and futurity concur., it is proper to vary the termi- 

warranted by good authority? How JVoteS. Do the auxiliaries of the 
should it be altered? potential mood, when applied to the 
Note 7. 'Is the second person sin- subjunctive, change the termination 
gular of the imperfect ever vari- of the second person singular? When 
ed in its termination in the subjunc- is it pioper to vary the terminations 
tive mood? Will you give an exam- of the second and third persons sin- 
pie? Is this variation proper? gular of the present tense? Do the 



SYNTAX. 183 

nations of the second and third persons singular; that without the concur- 
rence of those circumstances, the terminations should not be altered; and 
that the verb and the auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries 
of the first future, undergo no alterations whatever; except the imperfect 
of the verb to be, which, in cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the 
persons of the singular number. 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be natural 
for the student to inquire, what is the extent of the subjunctive mood? 
Some grammarians think ir. extends only to what is called the present tense 
of verbs generally, under the circumstances of contingency and futurity, 
and to the imperfect tense of the verb to be, when it denotes contingency, 
&c: because in these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of variation; 
and they suppose that it is variation merely which constitutes the distinc- 
tion of moods. It is the opinion of oilier grammarians, (in which opinion 
we concur.) that, besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the 
three past and the two future tenses, are in the subjunctive mood, when 
they denote contingency or uncertainty, though they have not any change 
of termination; and that, when contingency is not signified, the verb, 
through all these five tenses, belongs to the indicative mood, whatever con- 
junction may attend it. They think that the definition and nature of the 
subjunctive mood, have no reference to change of termination, but that 
they refer merely to the manner of the being, action, or passion, signified 
by the verb; and that the subjunctive mood may as properly exist without 
a variation of the verb, as the infinitive mood, which has no terminations 
different from those of the indicative. The decision of this point may not, 
by some grammarians, be thought of much consequence. But the rules 
which ascertain the propriety of varying, or not varying, the terminations 
of the verb, will certainly be deemed important. These rules may be well 
observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respecting the nature and lim- 
its of the subjunctive mood.* 

8. 'If thou may share in his labors, be thankful and do it cheerfully/ 

'Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up honorably. 

'Though thou might have foreseen the danger, thou couldst not 
have avoided it.'" 

'If thou could convince him, he would not act accordingly.' 

verb and auxiliaries of the past tenses, of the subjunctive mood? What is 

and the auxiliaries of the first future the opinion of other grammarians? 

undergo any alteration? What ex- In which of these opinions does the 

ception? What is the opinion of some author concur? 
grammarians in regard to the extent 

*We have stated, for the student's information, the different opinions of 
grammarians, respecting the English subjunctive mood: First, that which 
supposes there is no such mood in our language; Secondly, that which ex- 
tends it no farther than the variations of the verb extend; Thirdly, that 
which we have adopted, and explained at large, and which, in general, 
corresponds with the views of the most approved writers on English Gram- 
mar. We may add a Fourth opinion, which appears to possess, at least, 
much plausibility. This opinion admits the arrangement we have given, 
with one variation, namely, that of assigning to the first tense of the sub- 
junctive, two forms: 1st, that which simply denotes contingency; as, 'If he 
desires it, I will perform the operation;' that is, 'If he now desires it: 2rliy, 
that which denotes both contingency and futurity; as, 'If he desire it, I will 
perform the operation;' that is, 'If he should hereafter desire it.' This last 
theory of the subjunctive mood, claims the merit of rendering the whole 
system of the moods consistent and regular; of being more conformable 
than any other to the definition of the subjunctive, and of not referring to 
the indicative mood forms of expression, which ill accord with its simplici- 
ty and nature. Perhaps this theory will bear a strict examination, 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

c If thou would improve in knowledge, be diligent.' 

'Unless thou should make a timely retreat, the danger will be una 

voidable.' 

<I have labored and wearied myself, that thou may be at ease. 5 

'He enlarged on those dangers', that thou should avoid them.' 

9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging to 

them, either expressed or understood; as, 

1st, Though— yet, nevertheless: as, 'Thoughhe was rich, yet ior our 

sakes he became poor.' ' Though powerful, he was meek.' 

2d, Whether— or: as, ' Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell. 

3d' Either— or: as, 'I will either send it, or bring it myself.' 

4th, Neither— nor: as, 'Neither he nor I am able to compass it.' 

5th' As — as: expressing a comparison of equality: as, 'She is as amiable 

as her sister; and as ;much respected.' 

6th, As— so: expressing a comparison of equality, as, "As the stars, so 

shall thy seed be.' t •• ... 

7 t h ? As— so: expressing a comparison of quality: as, l As the one mem, 

so dieth the other.' 'As he reads, they read.' 

g tn> So — as: with a verb expressing a comparison of quality; as, lo 

see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in die sanctuary.' 

9th, So — as: with a negative and an adjective expressing a comparison 
of quantity; as, 'Pompey was not so great a general' as Caesar, nor so 
great a man.' , , 

10th, So— thai: expressing a consequence: as, 'He was so latigueu, itiai 

he could scarcely move.' 

The conjunctions or and rcor may often be used, with nearly equal pro- 
priety. 'The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous, nor de- 
cisive, assented to the measure.' In this sentence or would, perhaps, have 
been better; but, in general, nor seems to repeat the negation in the former 
part of the sentence, and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression. 

9. 'Neither the cold or the fervid, but characters uniformly warm, 
are formed for friendship.' . 

'They are both praiseworthy, and one is equally deserving as the 
other.' 

'He is not as diligent and learned as his brother. 

'I will present it to him myself, or direct it to be given to him. 

'Neither despise or oppose what thou dost not understand. 

'The house is not as commodious as we expected it would be.' 

£ I must, however, be so candid to own I have been mistaken. 

'There was something so amiable, and yet so piercing in his look, 
as affected me at once with love and terror.' 
' I gain'd a son; 



And such a son, as all men hail'd me happy.' 

'The dog in the manger would not eat the hay himself, nor suffer 
the ox to eat it.' 

'As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 

'We should faithfully perform the trust committed to us, or ingenu- 
ously relinquish the charge. ' . 

'He is not as eminent, and as much esteemed as he thinks tiimseii 

'The work is a dull performance, and is neither capable of pleasing 
the understanding, or the imagination.' • 

'There is no condition so secure, as cannot admit of change. 

Note 9. Are there any conjunc- junctions belonging to them? Give 
tions which have correspondent con- examples. 



SYNTAX. 185 

•This is an event which nobody presumes upon, or is so sanguine 
to hope for. 1 

'We are generally pleased with any little accomplishments of body 
or mind.' 

LO. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pair?. 
The following are examples of this impropriety. 'The relations are so un- 
certain, as that they require a great deal of examination:' it should be, '-that 
they require,' &c. 'There was no man so sanguine, who did not appre- 
hend some ill consequences:' it ought to be, 'So sanguine as not to appre- 
hend,' &c. or, no man, how sanguine soever, who did not,' &c. 'To trust 
in him is no more but to acknowledge his power.' 'This is no other but 
the gate of paradise.' In both of these instances, but should be than. 'We 
should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope; whether they are such 
as we may reasonably expect from them what they propose,' &c. It 
ought to be, '-that we may reasonably,' &c. 'The duke had not behaved 
with that loyalty as he ought to have done;' 'with which he ought.' 'Irt 
the order as they lie in his preface:' it should be, 'in order as they lie; or, 
'in the order in tchich they lie;' 'Such sharp replies that cost him his life.' 
'as cost,'&c. 'If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly paint- 
ed;' 'such a scarecrow,' &c. '1 wish I could do that justice to his memory,, 
to oblige the painters,' &c; 'do such justice as to oblige,' &c. 

There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the conjunc- 
tive form of a verb. ' Were there no difference, there would be no choice.' 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is 
sometimes made use of: as, 'Had he done this, he had escaped;' 'Had the 
limitations on the prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his 
integrity had made him regard as sacred, the boundaries of the constitution/ 
The sentence in the common form would have read thus: 'If the limitations 
on the prerogative had been,' &c. 'his integrity would have made him re- 
gard,' &c. 

The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, has the force 
of a relative pronoun: as, 'Let such as presume to advise others, look well 
to their own conduct;' which is equivalent to, 'Let them who presume,' &c. 
But when used by itself, this particle is to be considered as a conjunction, 
or perhaps as an adverb. 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to a familiar style, equivalent 
to notwithstanding. The words /or all that seem to be too low. 'The 
word was in the mouth of every one, but, for all that, the subject may still 
be a secret*' 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated; because would do much better 
in the following sentence: 'It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French 
prosody differs from that of every other language.' 

The word except is far preferable to other than. 'It admitted of no effectu- 
al cure other than amputation.' Except is also to be preferred to all but. 
'They were happy all but the stranger.' 'In the two following phrases, the 
conjunction as is improperly omitted; 'Which nobody presumes, or is so 
sanguine to hope.' 'I must, howover, be so just to own.' 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood; as, 'I 
beg you would come to me;' 'See thou do it not;' instead of 'that you would,' 
'that thou do.' But in the following and many similar phrases, this con- 
junction were much better inserted: 'Yet it is reason the memory of their 

Note 10. Will you repeat this verb? Give an example. When lias 

Note and give an example under it? as the force of a relative pronoun? 

What is said of sentences beginning Give an example, 
with the conjunctive form of the 

Q2 



185 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

virtues remain to posterity.' It should be, 'yet it is just that the memory, 
&c. 

10. c Be ready to succor such persons who need thy assistance.' 

c The matter was no sooner proposed, but he privately withdrew to 
consider it.' 

'He has too much sense and prudence than to become a dupe to 
such artifices.' 

'It is not sufficient that our conduct, as far as it respects others, 
appears to be unexceptionable.' 

'The resolution was not the less fixed, that the secret was yet com- 
municated to very few.' 

c He opposed the most remarkable corruptions of the church of 
Rome, so as that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers. 5 

'He gained nothing further by his speech, but only to be commend- 
ed for his eloquence.' 

'He has little more of the scholar besides the name.' 

'He has little ot the scholar than the name.' 

'They had no sooner risen, but they applied themselves to their 
studies.' 

'From no other institution, besides the admirable one of juries, 
could so great a benefit be expected.' 

'Those savage people seemed to have no other element but war.' 

'Such men that act treacherously ought to be avoided.' 

'Germany ran the same risk as Italy had done.' 

'No errors are so trivial, but they deserve to be corrected. 

RULE XXIX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XX. 

When the qualities of different things are com- 
pared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed 
by the conjunction than or as, but agrees with the 
verb, or is governed by the verb or the preposition, 
expressed or understood: as, 'Thou art wiser than 
I; 5 that is, 'than I am. 5 'They loved him more than 
me;' i. e. 'more than they loved me.' 'The senti- 
ment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
Solomon than him;* that is, 'than by him.' 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preceding as well 
as tn some other forms, may be discovered, by supplying the words that 
are not expressed; which will be evident from the following instances 
of erroneous construction. 'He can read better than me.' ; IIe is as good 
as her.' 'Whether I be present or no.' 'Who did this? Me.' By supplying 
the words understood in each of these phrases, their impropriety and gov- 
'einins rule will appear: as, 'Better than I. can read;' 'As good as she is;' 
Present or not present/ 'I did it.' 

'In some respects, we have had as many advantages as them; but 
in the article of a good library, they have had a greater privilege than 
us.' 

'The undertaking was much better executed by his brother than 

he/ 

"Rule XXIX. 'Thou art wiser peat the rule for it? 
than I.' Will you parse I,' and re- 



SYNTAX. 1ST 

'They are much greater gainers than me by this unexpected event 

'They know how to write as well as him; but he is a much better 
grammarian than them.' 

'Though she is not so learned as him, she is as much beloved and 
respected.' 

'These people though they possess more shining qualities, are not 
so proud as him, nor so vain as her.' 

1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed: a 
number of which i;= subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the 
learner. 'Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death.' 'She suf- 
fers hourly more than me.' 'We contributed a third more than the Dutch, 
who were obliged to the same proportion more than us.' 'King Charles, 
and more than him. the duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to form 
new schemes,' 'The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for 
the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not 
worthy to bear.' 'It was not the work of so eminent an author, as him to 
whom it was first imputed.' 'A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but 
a fool's wrath is heavier than them both.' 'If the king give us leave, we 
may perform the office as well as them that do.' In these passages it ought 
to be, '/, ice, he, they ,' respectively. 

When the relative tcho immediately Follows than, it seems to form an ex- 
ception to the 29th lule; for in that connexion, the relative must be in the 
objective case; as, 'Alfred, than whom, a greater king never reigned, '&c. 
'Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat,' &c. It is re- 
markable that in such instances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would 
be in the nominative case; as, e A greater king never reigned than he,' that 
is ' than he was,' 'Beelzebub, than he,' &c ; that is, l than he sat.' The 
phrase than whom, is, however, avoided by the best modern writers. 

1. 'Who betrayed her companion'? Not me/ 

'Who revealed the secrets he ought to have concealedl Not him. 5 

'Who .related falsehoods to screen herself, and to bring an odium 
upon others'? Not me, it was her.' 

'There is but one in fault, and that is me.' 

'Whether he will be learned or no, must depend on his application.' 

'Charles XII. of Sweden, than who a more courageous person 
never lived, appears to have been destitute of the tender sensibilities 
of nature.' 

'Salmasius (a more learned man than him has seldom appeared) 
was not happy at the close of life.' 

RULE XXX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule XXI. 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to ex- 
press our ideas in a few words, an ellipsis, or omis- 
sion of some words, is frequently admitted. In- 
stead of saying, 'He was a learned man, he was 
a wise man, and he was a good man:' we make 
use of the ellipsis, and say, 'He was a learned, 
wise, and good man. 5 

Note 1. 'She suffers hourly more sentence and explain why it ir 
than ma' Will you correct this wrong? 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When the omission cf words would obscure the 
sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an 
impropriety, they must be expressed. In the sen- 
tence, 'We are apt to love who love us,' the word 
them should be supplied. 'A beautiful field and 
trees,' is not proper language. It should be, 'Beau- 
tiful fields and trees;' or, 'A beautiful field and fine 
trees.' 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elliptical; some ex- 
amples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech. 

'I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me/ 

'And this is it men mean by distributive justice, and is properly 
termed equity.' 

'His honor, interest, religion, were all embarked in this under- 
taking.' 

'When so good a man as Socrates fell a victim to the madness of 
the people, truth, virtue, religion, fell with him.' 

'The fear of death, nor hope of life, could make him submit to a 
dishonest action.' 

c An elegant house and furniture were, by this event, irrecoverably 
lost to the owner.' 

1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used; 'A man, woman, and child;' 
that is, 'a man, a woman, and a child.' 'A house and garden,' that is, 'a 
house and a garden.' 'The sun and moon;' that is, 'the sun and the moon.' 
'The day and hour;' that is, 'the day and the hour.' In all these instances 
the article being once expressed, the repetition o f i t becomes unnecessary. 
There is, however, an exception to this observation, when some peculiar 
emphasis requires a repetition; as in the following sentence. 'Not only the 
year, but the day and the hour.' In this case the ellipsis of the last article 
would be improper. When a different form of the article is requisite, the 
article is also properly repeated; as, 'a house and an orchard;' instead of, 
'a house and orchard.' 

1. 'These rules are addressed to none but the intelligent and the 
attentive.' 

'The gay and the pleasing are, sometimes, the most insidious, and 
the most dangerous companions.' 

'Old age will prove a joyless and a dreary season, if we arrive at 
it with an unimproved, or with a corrupted mind.' 

'The more I see of his conduct, I like him better.' 

Tt is not only the duty, but interest of young persons, to be studi- 
ous and diligent.' 

2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner. 'The laws 
of God and man;' that is, 'the laws of God and the laws of man.' In some 
very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used; as, 'Christ 
the power of God, and the wisdom of God;' which is more emphatical than 
'Christ the power and wisdom of God.' 

Rule XXX 'I gladly shunned of the ellipsis of the article? la it 
who gladly fled from me. * Will y ou necessary to repeat the article in each 
•orrect this sentence and repeat the of these instances? 
latter part of Rule XXX. by which Note 2. Will you give an exam- 
ine correction is made? pie of the omission of the noun? 

Note 1. Will you give an example Should this ellipsis always be used> 



SYNTAX. 189 

2. 'These counsels were the dictates of virtue, and the dictates of 

true honor.' . , 

'Avarice and cunning may acquire an estate, but avarice and cun- 
ning cannot gain friends.' , 

'A taste for useful knowledge will provide ior us a great and noble 
entertainment, when others leave us.' 

. 'Without firmness, nothing that is great can be undertaken, that is 
difficult or hazardous, can be accomplished.' ■ 

'The anxious man is the votary of riches; the negligent, of pleas- 



ure. 



3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the fo lowing manner. A de- 
lightful garden and orchard;' that is, «a delightful garden and a delightful 
orchard? 'A little man and woman;' that is, 'a little man and a little 
woman.' In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought to 
have exactly the same signification, and to be quite " P ro P«\ w ^ W" 1 ^ 
to the latter substantive as to the former; otherwise the ellipsis should not 

b Vo1neUm d es the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of ^ent nu^ 
hers; as, 'A magnificent house and gardens.' In this case it is ? better to 
use another adjective; as, -A magnificent house and fine gardens. 

3. 'His crimes had brought him into extreme distress, and extreme 

Pe ^He X hS'an affectionate brother, and an affectionate sister, and they 

live in great harmony.' m ,,..,., r mMUS > 

'We must guard against too great severity, and facility of manners 
'We should often recollect what the wisest men have said and writ- 
ten, concerning human happiness and vanity.' ? 
'That species of commerce will produce great gain or loss. 
c Manv days, and even weeks, pass away unimproved. 5 
'This" wonderful action struck the beholders with exceeding aston- 

'The people of this country possess a healthy climate and soil. 5 
'Thev enjov also a free constitution and laws.' f 

4. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun. '1 love and fear him; 
that is, 'I love him, and 1 fear him.' 'My house and lands; that is, my 
house and my lands.' In these instances the ellipsis may take place with 
propriety; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be 
used; as, 'His friends and his foes;' 'My sons and my daughters. < 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually 
omitted: as, 'This is the man they love;' instead of Hhis is the man 
whom they love.' 'These are the goods they bought; for 'these are the 
goods which they bought.' 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the Native pronoun ex- 
pressed; as it is more proper to say, 'The posture in .whiofa I ay, than, 
•in the posture I lay/ 'The horse on which I rode, fell down; than the 
hotse I rode, fell down.' „ M i 1DP 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together, 
and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer to each < rtber 
with great exactness. 'We speak that we do know, and testify that we 
have seen.' Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ^™^£iiup- 
plied; as, 'We speak that which we do know, and testify that which we 



have seen.' 



Kote 3. Will vou give an example JfoU 4. Will you g.ve an example 

of the ellipsis of the adjective? What of the ellipsis of the pronoun? Can, 

role is to be observed in the use of this ellipsis be properly used at all 

this ellipsis? times? 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. 'His reputation and his estate were both lost by gaming.' 
'This intelligence not only excited our hopes, but fears too.' 
'His conduct is not scandalous; and that is the best can be said of it.* 
'This was the person whom calumny had greatly abused, and sus- 
tained the injustice with singular patience.' 

Tie discovered some qualities in the youth, ot a disagreeable nat- 
ure, and to him were wholly unaccountable. 5 

'The captain had several men died in his ship of the scurvy.' 
'He is not only sensible and learned, but is religious too.' 
'The Chinese language contains an immense number of words; and 
who would learn them must possess a great memory.' 

c By presumption and by vanity, we provoke enmity, and we incur 
contempt.' 

Tn the circumstances I was at that time, my troubles pressed heavi- 
ly upon me.' 

f He had destroyed his constitution, by the very same errors that 
so many have been destroyed.' 

5. The ellipsis of the verb, is used in the following instances. 'The man 
was old and crafty;' that is, 'the man was old, and the man wascraftv.' -She 
was young, and beautiful, and good/that is, 'She was young, she was beau- 
tiful, and she was good;' 'Thou art poor, and wretched, and miserable, 
and blind, and naked.' If we would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, 
thou art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above the 
rest, that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied; as, 'She 
is young and beautiful, and she is good.' 

'I went to see and hear him;' that is, 'I went to see, and 1 went to hear 
him. In this instance there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb 
/ went, but hkewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed 
by it. ° 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries 
of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to snare the repiritionof 
the verb: as, Tie regards his word, but thou dost not:' i. e. 'dost not regard 
it. 'YVe succ(ec!ed; but they did not;' 'did not succeed.' 'I have learned 
my task, but thou hast not;' 'hast not learned.' 'They must, and they 
slial! be punished;' that is, 'they must be punished.' 

o. 'He is temperate, he is disinterested, he is benevolent; he is an 
ornament to his family, and a credit to his profession. 5 

'Genuine virtue supposes our benevolence to be strengthened, and 
to be confirmed by principle.' 

'Perseverance in laudable pursuits, will reward all our toils, and 
will produce effects beyond our calculation. 5 

'It is happy for us, when we can calmly and deliberately look back 
on the past, and can quietly anticipate the future.' 

'The sacrifices of virtue will not only be rewarded hereafter, but 
recompensed even in this life.' 
'All those possessed of any office, resigned their former commis- 



sion 



If young persons were determined to conduct themselves by the 
rules of virtue, not only would they escape innumerable dangers, but 
command respect from the licentious themselves.' 

JVote 5. Will you give an example Mow are the auxiliaries sometimes 

ot the ellipsis of the verb > used? 

Suppose we wish to point out one JVote 6. How is the ellipsis of the 

property above the rest? adverb used? 



SYNTAX. '191 

'Charles was a man of learning, knowledge, and benevolence; and ? 
what is still more, a true Christian. ' 

6 The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner. He 
spoke and acted wisely;' that is, 'He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely^ 
•Thrice I went and offered my service;' 'that is, 'Thrice 1 went, and 
thrice I offered mv service.' 

'The temper of him who is always in the bustle of the world, will 
be often ruffled, and be often disturbed. 5 m 

'We often commend imprudently as well as censure imprudently. 

'How a seed grows up into a tree, and the mind acts upon the 
body, are mysteries which, we cannot explain.' g 

'Verily, there is a reward for the righteous! There is a God that 
judgeth in the earth.' . . 

7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the fol- 
lowing instances: 'He went into the abbeys, halls, and pub he buildings; 
that is, 'he went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into 
the public buildings.' 'He also went through all the streets and lanes of the 
city ' that is, 'Through all the streets, and through all the lanes, <fcc. 'He 
spoke to every man and woman there;' that is, 'to every man and to every 
woman.' 'This day, next month, last year;' that is, 'on this, day in the 
next month, in ths last year;' 'The Lord do that which seemeth him good; 
that is, 'whieir seemeth to him.' . 

7. Changes are almost continually taking place, in men and in 
manners, in opinions and in customs, m private fortunes and public 
conduct.' . . 

'Averse either to contradict or blame, the too complaisant man 
goes along with the manners that prevail.' 

'By this habitual indelicacy, the virgins smiled at what they blush- 
ed before.' . L - , , 

'They are now reconciled to what they could not formerly be 
prompted, by any considerations.' _ 

'Censure is the tax which a man pays the public for being eminent. 

'Reflect on the state of human life, and the society of men, as 
mixed with good and with evil. 3 

8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows; 'They confess the power, 
wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator; i. e. 'the power, and wisdom, 
and goodness, and love of,' &c. 'Though I love him, I do not natter him;' 
that is, 'Though I love him, yet I do not natter him.' 

8. in all stations and conditions, the important relations take 
place, of masters and servants, and husbands and wives, and parents 
and children, and brothers and friends, and citizens and subjects.' 

'Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his family, nor his 
friends, nor his reputation.' 

'Religious persons are often unjustly represented as persons of ro- 
mantic character, visionary notions, unacquainted with the world, 
unfit to live in it.' 

'No rank, station, dignity of birth, possessions, exempt men from 
contributing their share to public utility. 5 

9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common; it, however, is 
sometimes used: as, 'Oh! pity and shame!' that is, 'Oh pity! Oh shame!' 

Note 7. Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the conjunction? 
of the ellipsis of the preposition and Note 9. What is said of the ellip- 
tic verb? sis of the interjection? 

A"oteS. Will you give an example 



192 * ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language, 
numerous examples of it might be given; but only a few more can be ad- 
mitted here. 

In the following instance there is a very considerable one: 'He will often 
argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain 
from one nation; and if another, from another; 1 that is, 41 e will often argue, 
that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one 
nation, and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should 
gain from another nation.' 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis; 'Wo 
is me;' i. e. 'wo is to me.' 'To let blood;' i. e. 'to let out blood.' 'To let 
down;' i. e. 'to let it fall or slide down.' 'To walk a mile;' i. e. 'to walk 
through the space of a mile.' 'To sleep all night;' i. e. *to sleep through 
all the night.' 'To go a fishing;' 'To go a hunting;' i. e. 'to go on a fishing 
voyage or business;' 'to go on a hunting party.' 'I dine at two o'clock;' 
i. e. 'at two of the clock.' 'By sea, by land, on shore;' i. e. 'By the sea, by 
the land, on the shore.' 

9. 'Oh, my father! Oh, my friend! how great has been my in- 
gratitude!' 

'Oh, piety! virtue! how insensible have I been to your charms!' 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of 
ellipsis in some particular cases. 'The land was always possessed, during 
pleasure, by those intrusted with the command;' it should be, 'those per- 
sons intrusted;' or, 'those who were intrusted.' 'If he had read further, he 
would have found seveial of his objections might have been spared;' that is, 
''he- would have found that several of his objections/ &c. 'There is nothing 
men are more deficient in, than knowing their own characters.' It ought 
to be, 'nothing in which men:' and, 'than in knowing.' 'I scarcely know 
any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and use;' it should 
be, * which would yield,' &c. l ln the temper of mind he was then;' i. e. 
in which he then was.' 'The little satisfaction and consistency, to be found 
in most of the systems of divinity 1 have met with, made me betake myself 
to the sole reading of the Scriptures:' it ought to be, i which are to be found,' 
and, '-which I have met with.' 'He desired they might go to the altar to- 
gether, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were due; : i.e. 
Ho him to whom,' &c. 

10. 'That is a property most men have, or at least may attain.' 
'Why do ye that, which is not lawful to do on the sabbath days?' 
'The showbread, which is not lawful to eat, but for the priests 
alone.' 

'Most, if not all the royal family, had quitted the place.' 
'By these happy labors, they who sow and reap, will rejoice to- 
gether.' 

RULE XXXI. 
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, Rule AX1I. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to 
each other: a regular and dependent construction, 
throughout, should be carefully preserved. The 
following sentence is, therefore, inaccurate: 'He 
was more beloved, but not so much admired, as 
Cinthio.' It should be, 'He was more beloved 
than Cinthio, but not so much admired. 5 

Note 10. 'There is nothing men ing their own characters.' Will you 
are more deficient in, than in know- correct this sentence? 



SYNTAX. 193 

The first example under this rule, presents a most irregular construction, 
namely, 'He was more beloved as Cinthio.' The words more and so much, 
are very improperly stated as having the same regimen. In correcting 
such sentences, it is not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis; because it 
cannot lead to any discordant or improper construction, and the supply 
would often be harsh or inelegant. 

As the 31st Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at the first 
view, appear to be too general to be useful. But by ranging under it a 
number of sentences peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive, that it is 
calculated to ascertain the true grammatical construction of many modes 
of expression, which none of the particular rules can sufficiently explain. 

'This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be 
published/ It ought to be, 'that has been, or shall be published.' 'He 
was guided by interests always different, sometimes contrary to, those of 
the community; 'different from)' or, 'always different from those of the 
community, and sometimes contrary to them.* 'Will it be urged that these 
books are as old, or even older than tradition?' The words, 'as old,' and 
'older,' cannot have a common regimen; it should be, 'as old as tradition, 
or even older. 1 'It requires few talents to which most men are not born, 
or at least may not acquire;' 'or which, at least they may not acquire.' — 
'The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the 
common law.' In this construction, the first verb is said, 'to mitigate the 
teeth of the common law,' which is an evident solecism. 'Mitigates the 
common law, and breaks the teeth of it,' would have been grammatical. 

'They presently grow into good humor, and good language towards the 
crown:' 'grow into good language,' is very improper. 'There is never 
wanting a set of evil instruments, who either out of mad zeal, private ha- 
tred, or filthy lucre, are always ready,' &c. We say properly, 'A man acts 
out of mad zeal,' or, 'out of private hatred;' but we cannot say, if we would 
9peak English, 'he acts out of filthy lucre.' 'To double her kindness and 
caresses of me;' the word 'kindness' requires to be followed by either to 
or for, and cannot be construed with the preposition of. 'Never was man 
so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have done this evening:' 
the first and third clauses, viz.: 'Never was man so teased, as I have 
done this evening,' cannot be joined without an impropriety; and to con- 
nect the second sind third, the word that must be substituted for as; 'Or suf- 
fered half the uneasiness that I have done;' or else, 'half so much uneasi- 
ness as I have suffered.' 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those 
such as are hardly Consistent with one another: 'How m,uch soever the re- 
formation of this degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we 
may yet have a more comfortable prospect of future times.' The sentence 
would be more correct in the following form: 'Though the reformation of 
this degenerate age is nearly to be despaired of,' &C. 

'Oh! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the blood- 
thirsty; in whose hands is wickedness, and their .right hand is full of gifts.' 
As the passage, introduced by the copulative conjunction and, was not in- 
tended as a continuation of the principal and independent part of the sen- 
tence; but of the dependent part, the relative whose should have been used 
instead of the possessive their: viz. 'and whose right hand is full of gifts.' 

'Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of 
man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him.' There 
seem9 to be an impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun 

Rule XXXI. Why is the first ex- be published.' Will you point oat 

ample under this rule inaccurate? the inaccuracies in this sentence and 

*This dedication may serve for al- correct them? 
most any book, that has, is, or shall 

R 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

serves in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of 
the nominative and objective cases. 'Neither hath it entered into the heart 
of man, to conceive the things,' &c. would have been regular. 

'We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those ima- 
ges which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vi- 
sion. It is very proper to say, 'altering and compounding those images 
which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision;' 
but we cannot with propriety say, 'retaining them into all the varieties;' 
and yet, according to the manner in which the words are ranged, this con- 
struction is unavoidable: 'for 'retaining, altering, and compounding,' are 
participles, each of which equally refers to, and governs the subsequent 
noun, those images; and that noun again is necessarily connected with the 
following preposition, into. The construction might easily have been rec- 
tified, by disjoining the participle retaining from the other two participles, 
in this way: 'We have the power of retaining those images which we have 
once received, and of altering and compounding them into all the varieties 
of picture and vision;' or, perhaps, better thus: 'We have the power of re- 
taining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once re- 
ceived, and of forming them into all the varieties of picture and vision,' 

'Several alterations and additions have been made to the work. 5 

'The first proposal was essentially different, and inferior to the se- 
cond.' 

'He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his 
companion.' 

'Thou nearest the sound of the wind, but thou canst not tell whence 
it cometh, and whither it goeth.' 

'Neither has he, nor any other persons, suspected so much dissimu- 
lation. 5 

'The court of France, or England was to have been the umpire. 1 

'In the reign of Henry II, all foreign commodities were plenty in 
England. 5 

'There is no talent so useful towards success in business, or which 
puts men more out of the reach of accidents, than that quality gene- 
rally possessed by, persons of cool temper, and is, in common lan- 
guage, called discretion. 5 

'The first project was to shorten discourse, by cutting polysylla- 
bles into one. 5 

'I shall do all I can, to persuade others to take the same measures 
for their cure which I have.' 

'The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another.' 

'Micaiah said, if thou certainly return in peace, then hath not the 
Lord spoken by me.' 

'I do not suppose, that we Britons want a genius, more than the 
rest of our neighbors. 5 

'The deal man, whose ears were opened, and his tongue loosened, 
doubtless glorified the great Physician.' 

'Groves, fields, and meadows, are at any season of the year, plea- 
sant to look upon: but never so much as in the opening of the spring.' 
'The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace. 5 

'The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of many, might 
and probably were good. 5 

'It is an unanswerable argument of a very refined age, the wonder- 
ful civilities that have passed between the nation of authors, and that 
of readers. 5 

'It was an unsuccessful undertaking; which, although it has failed, 
if no objection at all to an enterprise so well concerted. 5 



SYNTAX. 195 

: The reward is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter, be 
given to him.' 

'By intercourse with wise and experienced persons, who know the 
world, we may improve and rub off the rust of a private and retired 
education. 5 

'Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than knowledge. 5 

'No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the mortifications, 
as he has done to-day.' 

'The Romans gave, not only the freedom of the city, but capacity 
for employments, to several towns in Gaul, Spain, and Germany.' 

'Such writers have no other standard on which to form themselves, 
except what chances to be fashionable and popular.' 

'Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and heard in the clear- 
est light.' 

'To the happiness of possessing a person of so uncommon merit, 
Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honor his 
country could bestow.' 



PROSODY. 



Prosody consists of two parts: the former teach- 
es the true pronunciation of words, comprising 

ACCENT, QUANTITY, EMPHASIS, PAUSE, and TONE; the 

latter, the laws of versification. 

OF PRONUNCIATION. 

OF ACCENT. 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice, on a 
certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard 
tl: \n the rest, or distinguished from them: as, in the word pre- 
sume, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u } and second 
syllable sume, which take the accent. 

OF QUANTITY. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in 
pronouncing k. It is considered long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; 
which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with 
the following letter: as, Fall, tale, mood, house, feature. 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant, 
which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeed-, 
ing letter; as, ant, bonnet, hungei. 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short 
one in pronouncing it; thus, mate and note should be pro- 
nounced as slowly again as, mat and not. 

OF EMPHASIS. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, 
by which we distinguish some word or words on which we de- 
sign to lay a particular stress, and to show how they affect the 
rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be 
distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a 
greater stress. 

OF PAUSES. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessa- 
tion of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a 
measurable space of time. 

Q,. What is prosody? How much more time does the 

Q,. What is accent? What is the pronunciation of a long 1 syllable oc- 

quantitv of a syllable? When is a cupy, than a short one? What is 

vowel or syllable long? When short? emphasis? What are pauses? What 

Give examples of each? 



PROSODY. 197 

OF TONES. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consist- 
ing in the modulation of the voice, the notes or variations 
which we employ in the expression of our sentiments. 

OF VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and 
variety of syllables, according to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse, 
to the last sound of another. 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. They 
are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it 
were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three syl- 
lables, and are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, 
and four of three, as follows: 

dissyllable. trisyllable. 

A Trochee -— A Dactyl -v-^-> 

An Iambus ^- An Amphibrach v_x-v^ 

A Spondee -'— An Anapaest ww- 

A Pyrrhic ^^ A Tribrach ^^^ 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last un- 
accented; as, 'Hateful, pettish.' 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter 
accented; as, 'Betray, consist.' 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented; as, 
'The pale moon.' 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as, 
'on the tall tree. 5 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter, 
unaccented; as, 'Labourer, possible.' 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, 
and the middle one accented; as, 'Delightful, domestic. ' 

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the 
last accented; as, 'Contravene, acquiesce.' 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, 'Numerable, 
conquerable.' 

Some of these may be denominated principal feet; as pieces 
of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. 

are tones? What is versification? What is a Trochee? An Iambus? 

What is rhyme? What constitutes A Spondee? A Pyrrhic? A Dactyl? 

a poetical foot, and why is it so call* An Amphibrach? An Anapaest? A 

ed? Of how many syllables do po- Tribrach? Will you give an exam- 

etical feet consist? How many kinds pie of each? Which are called prin- 

of feet are there, and what are they? cipalfeet? Which secondary? Why? 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and Anapaest. The 
others may be termed secondary feet] because their chief use 
is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 

PUNCTUATION. 
Punctuation is the art of dividing a written 
composition into sentences, by points or stops, for 
the purpose of marking the different pauses which 
the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a 
pause double that of the comma; the Colon double that of the 
semicolon; and the Period double that of the colon. 



OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence, 
which, though very closely connected in sense and construc- 
tion, require a pause between them. 

Rule 1. With respect to a simple sentence, the several 
words of which, t is com posed , have so near a relation to each 
other, that in general, no points are requisite, except a full 
stop at the end of it; as, 'The fear of the Lord is the beginning 
of wisdom.' 'Every part of nature swarms with living crea- 
tures.' 

A simple sentence, however-, when it is a long one, and the 
nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may 
admit of a pause immediately before the verb; as, 'The good 
taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cul- 
tivation of the English language.' 'To be totally indifferent to 
praise or censure, is a real defect in character.' 

Rule 2. When the connection of the different parts of a sim- 
ple sentence, is interrupted by an imperfect, phrase, a comma is 
usually introduced before the beginning and at the end of the 
phrase; as, 'I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to me.' 
'His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. It is, therefore, 
not much approved.' But when the interruptions are slight 
and unimportant, the comma is better omitted; as, 'Flattery is 
certainly pernicious.' There is surely a pleasure in benefi- 
cence.' 

Q,. What is punctuation? What this kind? 'The good taste of the 

does the comma represent? The present acre has not allowed us to 

semicolon? The colon? The pe- neglect the cultivation of the English 

riod? language.' Does this sentence ad- 

How is the comma. used? mit of a pause; if so. where, and 

'The fear of the Lord is the be- what is the rule? 'I remember with 

ginning of wisdom.' Does this sen- gratitude his goodness to me?' Will' 

tence require a pause in it? Will you state how this sentence should 
vou give the rule for sentences of 



PROSODY. 199 

Rule 3. When two or more nouns occur in the same con- 
struction, they are parted by a comma; as, 'The husband, 
wife, and children, suffered extremely.' 'They took away their 
furniture, clothes, and stock in trade.' 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to 
two nouns closely connected by a conjunction: as, 'Virtue and 
vice form a strong contrast to each other. 5 'Libertines call re- 
ligion bigotry or superstition. 9 If the parts connected are not 
short, a comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is ex- 
pressed: as, 'Romances may be said to be miserable rhapso- 
dies, or dangerous incentives to evil.' 

Rule 4. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same 
substantive, are likewise separated by commas: as, 'Plain, 
honest truth wants no artificial covering.' 'David was a 
brave, wise, and pious man.' 

But two adjectives immediately connected by a conjunction, 
are not separated by a comma : as, 'Truth is fair and art- 
less.' 'We must be wise or foolish: there is no medium.' 

Rule 5. Two or more verbs, having the same nominative 
case, and immediately following one another, are also separ- 
ated by commas: as, 'Virtue supports in adversity, moderates 
in prosperity.' 'In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, 
request, and discuss.' 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an 
exception to the rule: as, 'The study of natural history expands 
and elevates the mind.' 

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and ex- 
ception. 

Rule 6. Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each 
other, must be separated by commas: as,. 'We are fearfully, 
wonderfully framed.' 'We must act prudently, steadily, and 
vigorously.' 

When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not 
parted by a comma: as, 'Some men sin deliberately and pre- 
sumptuously.' 

Rule 7. When participles are followed by something that 
depends upon them, they are generally separated from the rest 
of the sentence by commas: as, 'The king, approving tlieplan, 

be pointed, and the rule for it? Will tence should be pointed, and the 

you state the exception to this rule? rule for it? State the exceptions to 

'Plain honest truth wants no arti- this rule, 

flcial covering.' Will you state how 'We are fearfully, wonderfully 

this sentence should be pointed, and made.' Will you state what points 

the rule for it? What exception is should be placed in this sentence, 

thereto this rule? 'Virtue supports and the rule for it? State the excep- 

in adversity, moderates in prosperi- tions. 

ty.' Will you state how this sen- 'The king approving the plan, put 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

put it in execution.' 'His talents, formed for great enterprises, 
could not fail of rendering him conspicuous.' 

Rule 8. When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sen- 
tence from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase 
has usually a comma at each extremity: as, 'They set out early, 
and, before the dawn of day, arrived at the destined place.' 

Rule 9. Expressions in a direct address, are separated from 
the rest of the sentence by commas: as, 'My son f give me thy 
heart.' 'I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors.' 

Rule 10. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood abso- 
lute, are separated by commas from the body of the sentence: 
as, 'His father dying, he succeeded to the estate;' 'At length, 
their ministry performed, and race well run, they left the world 
in peace;' 'To confess the truth, I was much in fault. 5 

Rule 11. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other 
nouns in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, 
when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas: as, 
'Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and 
knowledge; 5 'The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the 
sun. 5 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, 
they are not divided: as, 'Paul the apostle;' 'The emperor 
Antoninus wrote an excellent book.' 

Rule 12. Simple members of sentences connected by com- 
paratives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma: as, 
'As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so doth my soul pant 
after thee;' 'Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled 
ox and hatred with it.' 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the com- 
ma is, in general, better omitted: as, 'How much better is it to 
get wisdom than gold!' 

Rule 13. When words are placed in opposition to each oth- 
er, or with some marked variety, they require to be distinguish- 
ed by a comma: as, 

'Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.' 

it in execution.' Will you state how tiles was eminent for his zeal and 

this sentence should be pointed, and knowledge.' Will you state how 

the rule for it? this sentence should be pointed, and 

'They set out early and before the the rule for it? 'As the hart pant- 
dawn of day arrived at the destined eth after the water brooks so doth 
place.' Will you state the rule for my soul pant after thee. 1 How 
pointing this sentence, and others of should this sentence be pointed, and 
a similar kind? what is the rule for it? 

'My son give me thy heart.' 'Tho' deep yet clear tho' gentle yet 

What is the rule for pointing this not dull.' 

sentence? How should this sentence be point- 

Q. 'Paul the Apostle of the Gen- ed, and what is the rule for it? State 



PROSODY. 201 

'Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found not 
only in union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct 

° f Sometimes 'when the word with which the last preposition 
agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma before it: as 
'Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection of 

R The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or 
more nouns refer to the same preposition: as, 'He was compos- 
ed both under the threatening, and at the approach, of a cruel 

and lingering death.' . 

Rule 14. A remarkable expression, or a short observation 
somewhat in the manner of a quotation may be properly marked 
with a comma: as, 'it hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know, 
'Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves. 

Rule 15. Relative pronouns are connective words, and gen- 
erally admit a comma before them: as, 'He preaches sublimely, 
who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life. 

But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected by 
a relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a 
particular sense, the comma should be omitted: as, 'Self-denial 
is the sacrifice which virtue must make. 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the rel- 
ative is not expressed, but understood: as, 'It was from piety, 
warm and unaffected, that his morals derived strength . 

Rule 16. A simple member of a sentence, contained within 
auother, or following another, must be distinguished by a com- 
ma: as, 'To improve time whilst we are blessed with health, 
will smooth the bed of sickness.' 'Very often, while we are 
complaining of the vanity, and the evils of human life, we make 
that vanity, and we increase those evils. 

If, however, the members succeeding each other, are ve.y 
closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, Revelation 
tells us how we may attain happiness.' 

When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its governing 
verb, with several words between them, those words should 
generally have a comma at the end of them; as, 'It ill becomes 
good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one another. 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common de- 
pendence, and succeeding one anoth^arealgodivided by com- 
the exception tolinTTuuT 'It hurts be omitted? Does this rule apply 
a man's pride to say I do not know.' to cases id which the relative is es- 
Hovv should this sentence be point- pressed Give an example 
ed? and what is the rule for it?" 'He 'To improve time whilst we are 
preaches sublimely who lives a sober blessed with health wil smooth the 
righteous and pious life.' Will you bed of sickness H° w shou W this 
state how this sentence should be sentence be pointed, and wha « the. 
pointed, and the rule for it? Will rule for it? Will you state the ex- 
you state when the comma should ceptions to this rule. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mas: as, 'To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to 
protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and 
noble employments.' 

Rule 17. When the verb to be is followed by a verb 
in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be 
made the nominative case to it, the former is generally separat- 
ed from the latter verb, by a comma: as, 'The most obvious rem- 
edy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men. J 'The 
first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to with- 
draw from all associations with bad men.' 
. Rule 13. When adjuncts or circumstances are of im- 
portance, and often when the natural order of them is invert- 
ed, they may be set off by commas: as, 'Virtue must be formed 
and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeat- 
ed exertions.' 'Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of 
life, grow great and monstrous.' 

Rule 19. Where the verb is understood, a comma may 
often be properly introduced. This is a general rule, which, 
besides comprising some of the preceding rules, will apply to 
many cases not determined by any of them: as, 'From law 
arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, know- 
ledge.' 

Rule 20. The words, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, 
formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in 
the next place, in short ,and all other words and phrases of the same 
kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. , 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence in- 
to two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which 
are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependent on each 
other as those which are distinguished by a colon. 

The semicolon is sometimes used when the preceding mem- 
ber of the sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but 
depends on the following clause; and sometimes when the 
sense of that member would be complete without the concluding 
one; as in the following instances: 'As the desire of approba- 
tion, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable 
part of our species in every thing that is laudable; so nothing is 
more destructive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly.' 

'The moFt obvious remedy is to curiosity knowledge.' How should 

withdraw from all associations with this sentence be pointed and what is 

bad men. Will you state how this the rule for it? 'He feared want hence 

sentence should be pointed and the he overvalued riches, 1 Will you 

rule for it? 'Vices like shadows to- state how this sentence should be 

wards the evening of life grow pointed and the rule for it? 
great and monstrous.' Will you give Whew is the semicolon used? 

the rule for pointing this sentence When is the colon used? In what 

and apply it? 'From law arises se- three cases may the colon be proper- 

curity from security curiosity from ly applied? 



PROSODY. 203 

OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semi- 
colon; but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be properly applied in the three following 
cases: 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but 
followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustration 
of the subject ; as, '.Nature felt her inability to extricate herself 
from the consequences of guilt: the gospel reveals the plan of 
Divine interposition and aid.' 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still great- 
er pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or con- 
cluding sentiment; as, 'A divine legislator, uttering his voice 
iiom heaven; an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm to 
punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared 
hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath await- 
ing the wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the 
world, which support integrity, and check guilt. 5 

3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quota- 
tion, or a speech is introduced; as, 'The Scriptures give us an 
amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: 'God is 
love.' ' 

OF THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not con- 
nected in construction with the following sentence, it is marked 
with a period. 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word; as, 
M S. P. S. N.B. A.D. O. S. N. S. &c. 

THE DASH. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and inco- 
herent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the 
sentence breaks off abruptly; where a significant pause is re- 
quired; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment: 
as, 'If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh! how 
fallen! how degraded!' 

INTERROGATION. 

A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative 
sentence; that is, when a question is asked; as, 'Who will ac- 
company me?' 'Shall we always be friends?' 

EXCLAMATION. 

The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 



When is the period used? After used at the end of this sentence? 

abbreviated words what point should To what is the note of exclamation 

be used? Give examples. applied? Give an example. Are 

When may the dash be introduced the exclamation and interrogation 

with propriety? 'Who will accom- points determinate as to their quan- 

pany me?' What point should be tity or time ? 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

emotion, surprise, joy. grief, &c. and also to invocations or ad- 
dresses; as, 'My friend! this conduct amazes me!' 'Bless the 
Lord, Omy soul! and forget not all his benefits!' 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate 
as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that re- 
spect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may 
require. They mark an elevation of the voice. 

PARENTHESIS. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary infor- 
mation, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence 
obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the gram- 
matical construction; as, 

'Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue, alone, is happiness below.' 
The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, 
and may be accompanied with every point which the sense 
would require, if the parenthetical characters were omitted. 
Directions respecting the use of Capital Letters. 
It is proper to begin with a capital, 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any 
other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period; and if the two sentences are 
totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

3. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Jehovah, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Mes- 
siah, the Holy Spirit. 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, riv- 
ers/ships; as, George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, 
the Seahorse. 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of place ; as, 
Grecian, Roman, English, French, Italian, &c. 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or 
when it is in a direct form; as, i Always remember this ancient 
maxim: 'Know thyself.* ' 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin 
with a capital. 

7. Every substantive an d principal word in the titles of books; 
as, Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language. Thomson's 

Seasons. 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun /, and the interjection O, are written in cap- 
itals. . . 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, 
when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject 
of the composition 



What is a parenthesis? Give an ed or depressed in pronouncing a pa- 
xauiple in which it is used with pro- renthesis? When should capital let- 
nety. Should the voice be elevat- ters be used? 



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